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Chandler's Common School Grammar. 



GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



ADAPTED TO THE 



SCHOOLS OF AMERICA. 



BY JOSEPH RrCHANDLER, 

EDITOR OF THE UNITED STATES GAZETTE. 



';:;^-5' of f::oAv 



PHILADELPHIA : ^ 

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 

1848. 



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oC\ 



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N^^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the vear 1847, by 

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO., 

in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United Slates for the 
Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



STEREOTYPED BY J. FAGAN* 
PRINTED BY SMITH AND PETERS* 



(2) 



PREFACE. 



English Grammar has, within a few years, assumed that 
degree of importance in schools, to which its usefulness entitles 
it^ almost every person is ready to acknowledge its utility, and 
many are anxious to become masters of it : hence, almost every 
.treatise on the subject has been purchased with avidity, and 
read with patience. The desire of the uninformed to acquire a 
knowledge of their own tongue, has induced the learned to 
attempt an analysis of its principles, and to reduce it to those 
rules by which other languages are governed. If they have 
failed in their attempt to make their works fully understood, 
and, consequently, generally useful, it is because they have 
attempted to show what the principles of grammar a?*e, rather 
than how they may be acquired. 

A long acquaintance with the business of teaching convinced 
the author of this work that the study of English Grammar 
may be made as interesting to the pupil as that of any other 
science ; and that it is only necessary to fix the attention, and 
excite the emulation of scholars, by lucid explanations and 
familiar examples, to insure a rapid progress. 

That the pupils' acquirements in English Grammar are, in 
general, so far behind their knowledge of other sciences, is 
chiefly owing to the want of a proper arrangement of their 
studies. They are, in general, required to commit to memory 
whole pages of uninteresting matter, of the application of which 
they are profoundly ignorant, and of which a large proportion 
of the words are entirely above their comprehension. Thus, 
the definitions of the parts of speech, the declension of pronouns 
and conjugation of verbs, and sometimes the rules of Syntax, 
are required from the pupil, before he is able to designate the 

(3f 



IV PREFACE. 

parts of speech of which a simple sentence is composed. To 
obviate this difficulty, a system of teaching is proposed in which 
the scholar, by commencing with the business of parsing, is 
immediately made acquainted with the necessity for understand- 
ing the definitions of the parts of speech as they occur progres- 
sively in his lessons : and hence, by a continual application of 
them, he becomes conversant with their uses, and familiar with 
their various ramifications. The scholar, when he has read the 
definition of the parts of speech, and seen their application as 
they occur in his first lessons for parsing, will find that the task 
of committing to memory the explanations in Etymology is 
materially diminished. 

For this purpose, the progressive lessons of etymological 
parsing are inserted, accompanied by the most simple exposition 
of each sentence. These lessons, which, by their constant 
reference to the explanations of the different parts of speech, 
must fix in the mind of the scholar the just value of words, and 
give him a facility in the use of grammatical terms, will, it is 
confidently believed, be as useful in grammar, as maps are in 
geography. 

The arrangement of the work will be found to agree, as much 
as practicable, with that of other works of a similar kind. A 
new classification of some words seems required by the analogy 
of our language ; but as an alteration in the nomenclature of 
any science is attended with much difficulty, it was deemed best 
to adhere, as far as possible, to admitted arrangements ; espe- 
cially where a difference in the use of terms would make no 
essential difference in composition. 

On the subject of the use of a passive voice in the indefinite 
form of the verb, a chapter has been given containing an argu- 
ment for the admission of a form which is now coming into 
general use. But, aware that many teachers are opposed to the 
introduction of such a form of the verb, or rather that they 
deny its existence, care has been taken to separate that chapter 
from the text of the work ; and, in the course of the treatise, 
there is no parsing or compilation provided in that form. 



PREFACE 



It is oilen said by people of some real claim to science, that 
the best knowledge of Grammar is to be obtained from reading 
attentively the approved works of the language ; and that the 
tedious business of Etymology and Syntax is only a useless tax 
upon the time and patience of a scholar. Such persons must 
have but little acquaintance with the early progress of the 
human mind, and still less knowledflje of the art of directino- it. 
A pleasing style may be acquired from an intimate acquaintance 
with the English classics ; but no man has ever become a gram- 
marian from reading them. We may learn from them to think 
correctly, act nobly, and live virtuously; but not to write gram- 
matically. It is the sentiment that excites our admiration, and 
the pleasing (not always correct) disposition of the words, which 
creates that peculiar pleasure we receive in reading; hence, 
even supposing the works free from those errors in which 
almost every page abounds, the reader has but a small chance 
of correcting those improprieties which all acquire in their nur- 
sery, and of which few, even in the severer labors of compo- 
sition, have been able to divest themselves. For it is the law 
which gives a knowledge of offence ; and if no law, or rule is 
given, we may go on our whole life-time reading and writing, 
without once perceiving the difference between a pleasing and a 
correct style. 

It is not presumed that even a perfect knowledge of the rules 
of Syntax will prevent an occasional violation of them ; imita- 
tive as we are, it is natural that the examples which are every 
hour uttered in our ears, or spread before our eyes, should have 
a greater effect than the cold precept which is seldom repeated, 
and more rarely followed. The writings of every grammarian 
are sometimes, from inattention, at variance with his own rules. 

The study of English Grammar has been much neglected, 
and even discountenanced, by men of science, from the belief 
that a knowledge of the Latin language is sufncient to make an 
English scholar. Though it is true that, in all languages, the 
great principles of Grammar are the same, yet there are certain 
forms of expressions, and some peculiarities, in every language 



VI PREFACE. 

which can not be reached by the rules of any other. These 
forms and expressions exist in a peculiar manner in the English 
language ; and, however liberal may be the attainments of the 
pupil in Latin or Greek, he is not an English scholar till these 
are understood. 

The progress of the pupil in foreign, and particularly in the 
learned languages, would be materially accelerated, were he to 
commence the study of Grammar in his maternal tongue : he 
would certainly understand the principles, when he saw them 
applied to the language which he already understood ; and this 
knowledge of the general principles of Grammar would be a 
powerful auxiliary in the acquirement of any ancient language 
which he might be desirous of learning. 

It has been the object of the author to preserve, throughout 
the whole work, great simplicity of explanation, in order to 
reduce the study of Grammar to the capacity of those to whom 
it is generally assigned. And this simplicity especially per- 
vades the parsing lessons, where frequent repetition is intended 
to fix in the mind of the young scholar, the definition and offices 
of the parts of speech, and to familiarize him with all their 
accidents and combinations. 

This book is not intended as an essay upon Grammar, but as 
the hand-book of the scholar who wishes to commence the study 
of English Grammar, and feels the need of simple and famiUar 
explanations and illustrations, and oft-repeated rules. 



EXPLANATIONS. 

The teacher who may adopt this book will scarcely need any 
hint in regard to its use. He will understand how to arrange 
his classes, and how to adapt the various lessons to their capa- 
cities and previous attainments ; and he will comprehend the 
arrangements of the lessons, and know how to simplify them 
even beyond what has already been effected. 

Should any seek to acquire a knowledge of Grammar without 
the aid of a regular teacher, it may not be improper to say to 
them that the work commences with a cursory view of the parts 
of speech, which may be useful in acquiring a primary know- 
ledge of their several uses, in that part of the work which pur- 
ports to treat at large of Etymology. Every definition should 
be carefully studied, and applied in some appropriate parsing ; 
and each new parsing example should include all that has been 
previously explained ; and every successive lesson should, as 
far as possible, be connected with its predecessors. 

The author of this volume does not pretend to write for the 
instruction of teachers: the book herewith presented is intended, 
by its simplicity of illustration, to instruct the scholar, and 
thereby assist the teacher. Much of the success of the work 
must depend upon the exertions of the instructor, upon the 
adaptation of the lessons to the capacity of young pupils, and 
the explanations and illustrations which may be given in addi- 
tion to those with which the work abounds. 

Persons not conversant with the labors of the school-room, 
will be struck with the amount of repetition in the body of the 
work — the experienced preceptor will bear in mind, undoubt- 
edly, that almost every lesson he gives is made useful by being, 
in part, a repetition of former instruction. 

(7) 



INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR. 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

Although most pupils who enter upon the study of Gram- 
mar have, by associating with other scholars, gathered some 
knowledge of the names and uses of the parts of speech, yet it 
frequently happens that scholars commence the regular study 
of this science without having a knowledge of its most simple 
rules. It is best, therefore, " to begin at the beginning :" such 
a course must save the scholar from much confusion, and relieve 
the teacher from much inconvenience. With this view, it has 
been deemed expedient to give the scholar a cursory glance at 
the parts of speech, and their most important relations ; and to 
familiarize him with the use of some of the constantly recurring 
terms, before he enters upon the regular study. Nothing will be 
omitted in the body of the work which can illustrate the rules ; 
but it is desired there to treat at large of each part of speech in 
its place ; in doing which, it will often become necessary to men- 
tion and to make use of certain of them, of which no account 
will have been given : for example, in speaking of cases of 
nouns, it is convenient to mention prepositions and participles. 
A slight knowledge of the name and principal purpose of each 
part of speech may then be deemed a convenient, if not a 
necessary, preparation to a particular study of all. 

(9) 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

a] The words in the English language are classed under ten 
different heads — Nouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Pronouns, 
Prepositions, Participles, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections. 
These are called parts of speech. When, therefore, the scholai 
is asked what part of speech is any particular word, he will 
understand that he is asked whether it is a Noun, a Pronoun, 
an Adjective, a Verb, an Adverb, a Participle, an Article, a 
Preposition, an Interjection, or a Conjunction; for it must be 
one of these. 

Each of the definitions in the following preparatory lessons is marked 
with a letter of the alphabet ; and in parsing the parts of speech under 
the subsequent lessons, the scholar should repeat the rules which apply. 

NOUN. 

b] a Noun is the name of any person, thing, or idea : as 
John, man, woman, angel, house, elegance, thought, wisdom. 

Let the scholar point out the Nouns in the following sentences, and tell 
why they are Nouns : 

** Man has an idea of the wisdom and goodness of his Maker." 

*' God created man in his own image." 

** Heaven is full of happiness, and of angels." 

Heaven is a Noun, because it is a name, [b 



OF ARTICLES. 

c] There are only three words called Articles, namely, 
J., An^ and The. They refer to nouns, and are said to limit 
them, as a man, the men. 

d] a and an are Indefinite Articles, There is no differ- 
ence in the meaning of these two words; an is used in the 
place of a, before words that begin with a vowel sound, as a 
man, an ox. 

e] The is a definite Article. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS. 11 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 

A horse — The cow — An ox. 
^ ... is an indefinite article, limiting horse, [d 
Horse is a noun, because it is a name, [b 
The . . is a definite article, limiting cow. [e 
Cow . . is a noun, because it is the name of a creature, [b 
An . . is an indefinite article, limiting ox, and takes the place of a in this 
sentence, because the next word (ox) begins with a vowel sound, [d 
Oa; . . is a noun, because it is the name of a creature, [b 

ADJECTIVES. 

f] An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun, by 
expressing some property of the person, thing, or idea, for which 
the noun stands, as good^ bad, old, new, high, low. These 
are Adjectives, and, when applied to a noun, aid that word to 
distinguish the object for which it stands from another of the 
same class ; as, a good book, not a bad book — a high office, 
not a low office — an old cloak, not a new cloak. 

In parsing, the scholar will say that the adjective qualifies a noun. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 

A good boy. 

^ . . is an indefinite article, limiting the noun hoy. It will be recollected 
that articles, though placed before adjectives, do not refer to or con- 
trol them, [d 
good is an adjective, qualifying the noun hoy. [f 
boy . is a noun, because it is a name, [b 
The large Bible — The beautiful city. 
The longest street — The highest monument. 
The wildest animal — The holy place. 

VERBS. 

g] Verbs generally express what is declared of some object, 
or its existence. That is, they represent the action, or beings 
of some person or thing. 

Verb. Verb. 

Charles writes. William reads. 

The people worship. The birds sing. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 

The new ship sails. 
The As the definite article, limiting ship, [e 
new . is an adjective, qualifying ship, [f 

[It may be remarked that adjectives v^iil make sense with the word 
thing, or things ; as, new thing, good things, many things.] 
ship is a noun, because it is the name of a thing, [b 
sails is a verb, because it represents the action of ship, [g 

[A verb is said to agree with the word whose action it represents ; 
and sails represents the action of ship. The verb sails is said to 
agree with ship.] 
The old man mourns — A young girl laughs. 
An elegant horse trots — The Holy Bible instructs. 

PRONOUNS. 

h] a Pronoun is a word standing for a noun, as for John 
one may say he; thus, John writes, and /ie reads — that is, John 
reads : he, then, is a Pronoun. I saw a man who was at Mon- 
terey. Who, represents the same person that is represented by 
the noun man ; tvho is, therefore, a Pronoun. 

Napoleon called Murat, and told him to ask the queen whether she 
would be ready. 

/ informed her that the roads were bad, and that they would need 
repairing. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 

The boy told his mother he loved her. 

The . . is a definite article, limiting hoy. [e 
hoy . . is a noun, because it is a name, [b 
told . . is a verb, because it signifies the action or doing of a person. This 

verb agrees with hoy. [g 
his ... is a pronoun ; it stands for hoy. [h 
mother is a noun, because it is the name of a person, [b 
/ie ... is a pronoun, standing for hoy; that is, the boy loved, [h 
loved . is a verb, because it is the action of he (he loved), and agrees with 

he. [& 
her ... is a pronoun ; it stands for mother, [h 

A bad boy destroyed his book. 
John told Mary — she told her mother. 
John saw the man who wrote the work. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS. 13^ 

PREPOSITIONS. 

i] Prepositions are words used to show the relation of 
words, or parts of a sentence, with other words, which they are 
said to govern. They are such words as by, in, or into, with, 
without, to, unto. 

The boat sank in the river. The men rode with the army. He fell 
upon his face. 

Prepositions govern the nouns to which they principally relate ; for 
example, John rode in a gig: here, in governs gig. Charles shot at the 
birds : here, at governs birds, 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 

The servant rode behind the carriage. 
T?ie ... is a definite article, limiting servant, [e 
servant . is a noun, because it is a name, [b 
rode. . .is a verb, because it represents action; it represents the action 

of servant, and agrees with that word. [& 
behind . . is a preposition ; it governs the noun carriage, [i 
the .... is a definite article, limiting carriage, [e 
carriage is a noun, because it is the name of a thing, [b 

He falls upon the pavement : upon is a preposition, gOYermng pavement, 

Charles came into the room : into is a preposition, governing room. 

Henry looked through the hole. 

He rode from the place. 

PARTICIPLES. 

j] Participles are words derived from a verb, and partake 
of the characteristics of verbs and adjectives, as loving, de- 
stroyed, having destroyed. 

examples of parsing. 

Mary found a little dog, tearing her dresses. 
Mary . is a noun, because it is the name of a person, [s 
found . is a verb, because it represents the action of Mary, [g 
a .... is an indefinite article, limiting dog. [d 
little . is an adjective, qualifying dog. It qualifies or assists the word dog 

to represent the particular animal, by referring to its size, [f 
dog ... is a noun, because it is the name of an object, [b 
tearing is a participle from the verb tear. Most words that end in ing are 

participles, [j 

B 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

her ... is a pronoun, standing for the noun Mary, [h 
dresses is a noun, because it is the name of certain things, [b 

**He discovered the island, hurled beneath the water." In this sen- 
tence, buried is a participle from the verb to bury; it has a relation to 
island. 

** William discovered the boys playing on the ice." 

ADVERBS. 

k] Adverbs are words used to qualify verbs, adjectives, 
=adverbs, and participles. They are such words as rapidly, 
when, why, very, and fearfully. Almost all the words that end 
in Zy are Adverbs. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING, 

The wild birds move rapidly when they fly. 
The. . . is a definite article, limiting birds, [e 
wild . . is an adjective, qualifying the noun birds, [f 
birds . . is a noun, because it is the name of objects, [b 
move . . is a verb, showing the action of birds, [g 
rapidly is an adverb, qualifying the verb move. It shows the manner in 

which the action is performed, [k 
when . . is an adverb, qualifying the verbal/, by showing the relative time. 

(It shows the relative time of the verb move, also.) [k 
they ... is a pronoun, standing for the noun birds, [h 
fly ... is a verb, showing the action of they; and they represents the noun 
birds, [a 
John runs rapidly in the street. 
Charles studies diligently at school. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

l] Conjunctions are words used only to connect certain 
words and sentences ; they are such words as and, but, or, nor. 
Thus, John and Charles came to school. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 

William and Charles built a house, and sold it. 
William is a noun, because it is the name of a person, [b 
and ... is a conjunction, connecting William and Charles ; because, by 

the use of and, both William and Charles are represented as 

doing one act. [l 



PREPARATORY LESSONS. 15 

Charles . is a noun, because it is the name of a person, [b 
huilt ... is a verb, expressing the action of William and Charles. It 
agrees, consequently, with the nouns William and Charles, [g- 

a is an indefinite article, limiting house, [n 

house . . is a noun, because it is the name of a thing, [b 
and ... is a conjunction, connecting huilt and sold; showing that both of 
the actions represented by the words huilt and sold were per- 
formed by the same agents, William and Charles, [l 
sold ... is a verb, because it represents an action. It represents the action 
of William and Charles, and, therefore, agrees with the nouns 
William and Charles, [g 

it is a pronoun, standing for the noun house, [h 

James and William make a noise, and disturb the school. 

John laughed when he saw William running and jumping in the streets. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are certain words merely expressive of emo- 
tion, as Oh! Ah! Alas! &c. They are not said to relate to 
any other word. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 



1. English Grammar is the art of writing and speaking the 
English language with propriety. 

2. Grammar is divided into four parts, viz., Orthography 
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

3. Orthography teaches the true pov/ers of letters, and the 
just mode of spelling words. 

4. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their use 
and variation. 

5. Syntax treats of the formation of words into a sentence, 
and of their several relations and dependencies, 

6. Prosody teaches to pronounce words according to accent 
and quantity. This definition, though strictly correct, is cer- 
tainly limited, when the usual application of the term is con- 
sidered. 

As an elementary book, this work will be confined to Ety- 
mology, Syntax and Prosody. 

7. As the terms, object, 'primary^ and secondary^ are fre- 
quently used in the course of this work, their meaning should 
be clearly understood by the scholar. By object is meant the 
person, thing, or. event, for which a v/ord stands, thus: The 
house is old : the building, referred to by the word house, is the 
object of the word house. 

8. The primary is that part of speech to which some other 
word relates, thus : An old house : house, being referred to by 
an and old, is the primary of these two words. 

9. A secondary is a part of speech which relates to some word, 

2 B2 (17) 



18 E N G L I S H G R A M M A R . 

as, She writes elegantly. Elegantly is used to express the 
manner of writing ; it refers to the word writes, and is, there- 
fore, a secondary. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES, 

What is Grammar? 

How is Grammar divided? 

What is Orthography ? 

What is Etymology? 

What is Syntax? 

What is Prosody? 

What is to be understood by object? 

What is a primary? 

What is a secondary? 



ETYMOLOGY. 

10. The words of which the English language is composed 
are classed under ten different heads, called parts of speech, viz.. 
Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, 
Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection. 

ARTICLE. 

11. The article is placed before a noun to limit or define its 
extent. There are two kinds of articles, definite and in- 
definite. 

INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

12. The indefinite article is only the letter a, (or the word an 
before a vowel or silent h,) used in relation to a noun, to limit 
its extent from a general to an individual application. 

EXAMPLES. 

A man, An American, 

A person's estate, An honorable man. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

EXERCISE FOR THE PUPIL. 

In the sentence, *'A gentleman who held an honorable office under 
government, evinced an amiable weakness in declining a part of the 
salary ;'^ let the scholar point out the indefinite articles, and state the rea- 
son for the difference in the spelling. 

PARSING. 

A scholar. ' 

A is an indefinite article, limiting scholar; that is, showing that the 
word scholar means only one person. 

An elephant. 
An is an indefinite article, limiting elephant. It takes the letter n, 
because the next word (elephant) begins with a vowel. 

An honest man. 
An is an indefinite article, limiting man. It takes the letter n, because 
the next word (honest) begins with a silent h. 

EXAMPLES. 

A bull. A tree. An ear. An angel. An honest woman. 

13. Though this article limits the noun to a single individual, it does not 
confine it to any particular one of the species ; it is therefore called an 
i7idejtnite article. Example : '' He found man greater than all God's work 
beside;" that is to say, he found the human species, expressed by the 
word man. "He found a man greater than all God's work beside;" 
that is, a single individual, because the word man is now limited by the 
article, a. 

DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

14. The definite article is the; it is the word used to limit a 

noun to some particular object of general acquaintance, or one 

which has been previously mentioned ; as, the ship has arrived : 

that is, the one expected. The children are well : that is, our 

own children, or those inquired after, or any children to whom 

a particular reference has been made. 

The is also used in a sense which is a little different from the above, as, 
"Moore died on the field of glory." Though no particular field, in point 
of locality, may be referred to, not even Corunna; yet, when a soldier is 
mentioned, the word field is with much propriety considered as standing 
for a class. So, "Two men shall be in the field;" not any particular 
enclosure, but the general theatre of a husbandman's labors. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXEECISE FOR THE PUPIL. 

Let the scholar point out the articles in th6 following sentence : ' * The 
Lord created the heavens and the earth ; and the earth was without form, 
and void." 

15. The definite article may be used with the singular or plural number 
of a noun. It is sometimes applied to a noun in the singular number, 
when a whole class is understood ; as, The mammoth no longer exists. 
The whale yields an abundance of oil. 

PARSING. 

The man prepared the ground. 

The is a definite article, limiting the word man; that is, it makes the 
word man express some particular individual, spoken of or alluded to. 

The boy parsed the lesson. The Alps are in Europe. The cow is in 
the barn. The lesson is closed. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is an Article? 

How many kinds are there ? 

What words are Indefinite Articles? 

When is an to be used instead of a ? 

What is the use of the Indefinite Article ? 

What word is the Definite Article? 

What is its use ? 

NOUN. 

16. The noun includes all words that are names; as, John, 
marly book, iveakness, action^ reflection, 

PARSING. 

John instructs a man. 
Jo?m ... is a noun, because it is the name of a person. 
instructs is a verb, agreeing with John. [Refer to g, Farts of Speech, 
page IL] 

a is an indefinite article, limiting man. [According to section 12, 

which should be repeated.] 
man ... is a noun, because it is the name of a person. 
The boys have a holiday. An eagle has a beak. 

17. Nouns are either common or proper. A common noun 
is a name common to every individual of the same species, or to 
the whole collectively ; as, inan, hoy, tree, animal. 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

18. A proper noun is the name used to point out any one 
individual from another of the same species, as Thomas^ Dela- 
ware, London. 

19. As the proper noun is an attempt to designate the subject 
by name, independently of properties or qualities, it follows that, 
it will not ordinarily admit of any limiting or qualifying power. 

PARSING . 

The woman sent Thomas. 

The ... is a definite article, limiting the noun woman. 

woman . is a noun, because it is a name. It is a noun common^ because it 
is common to, or denotes any one of its whole kind. 

se7it ... is a verb. [& 

Thomas is a noun, because it is a name ; and it is a noun proper, because 
it is proper to a particular individual. [Twenty individuals may 
be together; and the word man, as it would designate every one 
individually, would be common to all, and therefore a common 
' noun ; while Thomas, being proper, or appertaining to one, would 
be a proper noun.] 

Caesar sends health to Cato. 
Rome is a city. 

20. To nouns belong person, number, gender and case. 

PERSON. 

21. Person is a distinction which is made in a noun between 
its representation of its object, either as spoken to^ or spoken of. 
A noun used to illustrate a pronoun in the Jirst person, is said 
to be in the first person ; as, 

I, John, saw an angel, &c. 

22. A noun in the second person, represents a person or thing 
addressed ; as, 

Charles, I have need of your assistance. 
Charles, in the above example, is addressed ; and is, consequently, in the 
second person. 

23. In the third person, the noun represents a person or thing 
spoken of; as, 

Charles has read the hoolz. 

In the above example, Charles and book are spoken of, and, consequently, 
are in the third person. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARSING. 

The book belongs to Charles. 

The ... is a definite article, limiting hooh. 

hook ... is a noun, because it is a name ; noun common, because it is a name 
common to all books. It is in the third person, because the thing 
which it represents is spoken of. 

belongs is a verb, agreeing with hook, [a 

io .... is a preposition, governing Charles, [i 

Charles is a noun, because it is a name ; a noun proper, because it desig- 
nates the particular or proper name of an individual. It is in the 
third person, because the person (Charles) is spoken of. 

Boys, the lesson is completed. 
Boys is a noun, because it is a name ; a noun common, because it refers 
to a whole class, or kind. It is in the second person, because the 
boys are addressed, or spoken to. ^ 

The slate is on the table. 
Henry, you may take a seat. 

NUMBER. 

24. Number is a distinction between one and more. It is 
usually pointed out by the orthography of the word. 

There are two numbers ; singular and plural. 

25. A noun representing a single individual, is in the singular 
number. The plural number represents more than one object. 





EXAMPLES. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Boy, 




Boys. 


Woman, 




Women. 


Child, 




Children 



PARSING. 

The child has shoes. 

The . is a definite article, limiting child. 

child is a noun, because it is a name ; it is a noun common, because it is 
common, or is applied to all very young persons ; it is in the third 
person, because the child is spoken of, and not addressed; it is in the 
singular number, because it expresses but one, or because only one 
child is meant. 

has . is a verb, and agrees with child (the child has), [a 

shoes is a noun, because it is the name of certain articles ; it is a noun 
common, because it means any individuals of a whole class, or is 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

common to a whole class ; it is in the third person, because the arti- 
cles which the word represents are spoken of; it is in the plural 
number, because more than one shoe is meant. 
Boys wear caps. A book has covers. John read the lessons. 
26. The plural is generally formed by adding 5 to the singu- 
lar ; as, book, books. 

27. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural by adding 
es; as, miss, misses ; lash, lashes ; church, churches ; topaz, topazes ; box, 
boxes ; hero, heroes. 

28. Nouns in/or/e form the plural in ves; as, loaf, loaves; life, lives. 

29. The following form the plural according to the general rule : Dwarf, 
safe, scarf, brief, chief, grief, handkerchief, kerchief, mischief, fife, strife, 
hoof, reproof, proof, roof, gulf, surf, turf, fife. Those which end in^also 
follow the general rule ; as, muff, muffs. But staff has staves in the 
plural, though its compounds are regular; as, flagstaff, flagstafFs. 

30. Nouns ending in y after a consonant, form the plural by changing 
the y into ies; as, lady, ladies. But those ending in 3/ after a vowel, form 
their plural regularly ; as, valley, valleys. 

31. In the following nouns, the plural is irregularly formed: 



Singular. Plural. 

Man men 

Woman women 

Child children 

Ox oxen 

Foot feet 



Singular. Plural. 

Mouse mice 

Louse lice 

Goose geese 

Tooth , teeth 



32. The following have two forms of the plural, with different significa 
tions. 

Singular. Plural. 

Regular. Irregular. 

Brother brothers (of one family) brethren (of one society) 

Die dies (for coining) dice (for gaming) 

Genius geniuses (men of genius) genii (a kind of spirits) 

Index indexes (tables of reference) . . . .indices (signs in algebra) 

Penny pennies') ., , .. pence 1 ., , 

T>^„ '„„„ f considered as dis- f considered as a 

"ea peas \ , pease > 

Cow cows ) tinct objects. j^.^^ ^ mass. 

33. In many words adopted from foreign languages, the original plurals 
are retained. Of this numerous class, some of the most common will be 
given as specimens : 



Singular. Plural. 

Alumnus alumni 

Amanuensis amanuenses 

Analysis analyses 

Animalculum animalcula 



Singular. Plural. 

Antithesis antitheses 

Arcanum arcana 

Automaton automata 

Axis axes 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Singular. Plural 

Bandit banditti 

Basis bases 

Beau beaux 

Chrysalis chrysalides 

Crisis crises 

Criterion criteria 

Datum data 

Desideratum desiderata 

Diaeresis diaereses 

Effluvium effluvia 

Emphasis emphases 

Erratum errata 

Focus foci 

Genus genera 

Hypothesis hypotheses 

Ignis fatuus ignes fatui 



Singular. Plural. 

Lamina Iamina3 

Magus magi 

Miasma miasmata 

Nebula nebula 

Oasis oases 

Parenthesis parentheses 

Phasis phases 

Phenomenon phenomena 

Radius radii 

Speculum specula 

Stimulus stimuli 

Stratum strata 

Thesis theses 

Vertex vertices 

Virtuoso virtuosi 

Vortex vortices 



34. Some words of this class have an English as w^ell as a foreign form 
of the plural ; as, 



Singular. Original Plural. 

Apex apices 

Cherub cherubim . . 

Dogma dogmata 



English Plural. 

.apexes 
. cherubs 



Encomium encomia encomiums 

Gymnasium gymnasia gymnasiums 

Medium. . media mediums 

Memorandum memoranda memorandums 

Seraph seraphim seraphs 

Stamen stamina stamens. 

35. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they signify, do 
not generally admit of a plural ; as, water, gold, wheat, poverty, good- 
ness, arithmetic. When, however, these w^ords express things of which 
there are different kinds or divisions, they may be used in the plural. 
Thus, we may say wine, or wines ; metal, or metals; virtue, or virtues ; 
science, or sciences. Waters is often used in poetry ; but seldom with a 
clearly plural meaning. 

36. Some are used only in the plural; as, morals, manners, vespers, 
annals, archives, thanks, goods, scissors, statistics, politics. 

37. Some are used in both numbers without changing their form ; as, 
deer, sheep, news, means, series, species, optics, ethics. 

GENDEE» 

38. Gender is a distinction of a noun, with regard to sex. 

39. There are three genders, viz., masculine, feminine^ and 
neuter. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

41. The masculine gender denotes objects of the male kind; 
as, Charles, lion, king, man. 

42. The femimne gender denotes objects of the female kind ; 
as, Caroline, lioness, queen, woman. 

43. The neuter gender denotes objects which are not distin- 
guished by sex ; as, house, money, tree, street. 

Let the scholar point out the genders of the following words: Countess, 
father, coach, duke, aunt, book. 
Let the scholar supply a few nouns in mil of the genders. 

PARSING. 

Henry has lost an aunt. 

Henry . . is a noun, because it is a name ; a noun proper, because it apper- 
tains to an individual ; it is in the third person, because the per- 
son is spoken of; singular number, because the word means or 
represents only one individual ; it is in the masculine gender, 
because it represents a male. [41 

has lost . is a verb, agreeing with Henry, [a 

an is an indefinite article, limiting aunt; and as the word aunt, 

which is the next to it, begins with a vowel, the article is an, 
instead of a. 

aunt ... is a noun, because it is a name ; it is a noun common, because it 
is common to, or represents, any one of a class (any father's 
sister or mother's sister) ; it is in the third person, because the 
individual is spoken of; it is in the singular number, because 
only one person is meant; it is in t\iQ feminine gender, because 
the word aunt represents a female. [42 

The book belongs to a lady. 

The .... is a definite article, limiting booh. 

hook .... is a noun, because it is a name ; it is a noun common, because, 
without some other word, it would signify no book in particular ; 
it is in the third person, because it is spoken of; it is in the 
singular number, because only one book is referred to ; it is in 
the neuter gender, because it is of no sex. [43 

belongs . . is a verb, agreeing with book, [g 

to is a preposition, governing lady, [i 

a is an indefinite article, limiting lady. It is without the letter n 

in this case, because the next word begins with a consonant, [d 

lady .... is a noun, because it is a name ; it is a noun common, because it 
is common to a whole class ; it is in the third person, because 
the lady is spoken of; it is in the singular number, because only 
one lady is meant ; it is inthe/emmme gender, because the word 
lady represents a female. 

C 



26 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



EXAMPLES. 

The gentleman owns a horse. The road leads to Philadelphia. 

The rose blooms in the summer. The brook flows through the meadow. 

44. Many nouns of the neuter gender become masculine or feminine by 
poetical use ; thus, moon, ship, &c., are sometimes feminine, and sun 
masculine. 

45. Some nouns are masculine or feminine as they are differently ap- 
plied, as servant, friend, &c. When the application of such words is 
uncertain, they are to be considered of the masculine gender, though by 
some they are said to be in the cfgnmon gender. 

46. There are three ways of distinguishing sex: 1, by the use of differ- 
ent words ; 2, by the use of different terminations ; 3, by prefixing or affix* 
ing another word. The following nouns are arranged according to these 
three methods : 

1. Different words. 



Masculine. Feminine. 

Bachelor maid 

Beau belle 

Boar sow 

Boy girl 

Brother sister 

Buck doe 

Bull cow 

Cock hen 

Colt filly 

Dog bitch 

Drake duck 

Earl countess 

Father mother 

Friar nun 

Gander goose 

Hart roe 

Horse mare 

Husband wife 



Masculine. Feminine. 

King queen 

Lad lass 

Lord lady 

Male female 

Man woman 

Master mistress 

Monk nun 

Nephew niece 

Papa . . . . , mamma 

Rake jilt 

Ram ewe 

Singer songstress 

Sir madam 

Son daughter 

Swain nymph 

Uncle aunt 

Wizard witch. 



2. Difference of termination. 



Masculine. Feminine. 

Abbot abbess 

Actor actress 

Administrator administratrix 

Ambassador ambassadress 

Arbiter arbitress 

Auditor auditress 

Author authoress 

Baron baroness 

Benefactor benefactress 

Bridegroom bride 



Masculine. Feminine. 

Canon canoness 

Caterer cateress 

Chanter chantress 

Count countess 

Czar czarina 

Dauphin dauphiness 

Deacon deaconess 

Director directress 

Don donna 

Duke duchess 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Masculine. Feminine. 

Elector electress 

Emperor empress 

Enchanter enchantress 

Executor executrix 

God goddess 

Giant giantess 

Governor governess 

Heir heiress 

Hero heroine 

Host hostess 

Hunter huntress 

Inheritor inheritrix 

Instructer instructress 

Jew Jewess 

Lion lioness 

Marquis marchioness 

Mayor mayoress 

Negro negress 

Patron patroness 

Peer peeress 

Poet poetess 

3. Prefixes 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Gent\eman gentlewoman 

Land/ore? land/ac/y 

ilfaw-servant /wfliW-servant 



Masculine. 
Priest. . . . 
Prince . . . 

Prior 

Prophet . . 
Protector . 
Shepherd 
Songster . 
Sorcerer. . 



Sultan . . . 

Suit*- 

Testator. . 
Tiger.... 
Traitor. .. 
Tutor.... 
Tyrant.. . 
Victor. . . . 
Viscount . 
Votary . . . 
Widower. 



Feminine. 
. priestess 
.princess 
. prioress 
. prophetess 
. protectress 
.shepherdess 
. songstress 
. sorceress 
^ sultana 
I sultaness 
. suitress 
. testatrix 
. tigress 
.traitress 
.tutoress 
.tyranness 
.victress 
. viscountess 
.votaress 
.widow. 



or affixes. 

Masculine. Feminitie. 

He-hediX she-heox 

CocA:-sparrow Aew-sparrow 

Peacoc/c peaAen 



CASE. 

47. Case distinguishes the relation of a noun or pronoun to 
some other word in the sentence. It represents the object as 
being, having, doing, suffering, or addressed ; or in some relation. 

48. There are three cases, nominative, possessive, and ob- 
jective. 

NOMINATIVE CASE. 

49. The nominative case represents its object as being or 
doing, or as addressed ; thus, 

Nominaiivt, 

Charles is at home. 
William writes. 
The boy has a book. 

50. The nominative case is the immediate subject; it is, 
therefore, sometimes addressed, and is then called nominative 
independent; thus, 

Nom. Ind. 

Charles, I wish you to write. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

51. The possessive case denotes that to which something 
belongs; as, 



That building is Mary's house. 

The veto is the sovereign's right. 

Mary is possessed of that house. The sovereign is possessed of the right 
of the veto. 

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are spelled alike. The 
possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe (') and the letter s to any 

noun. 

Nominative. Possessive. 

The man owns the horse. That is the man's horse. 

The men own that house. That is the men's house. 

But if the plural number of the noun ends in s, then only the apostrophe 
is used to form the possessive case in the plural number ; thus, 
That hat belongs to the boy. It is the boy's hat. 

That bench belongs to the boys. That is the boys* bench. 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 

52. The objective case represents its object as being the per- 
son or thing which some one possesses ; as. 

Objective. 
Charles has a book : 

the recipient of an action ; as, 

Objective. 

Moses smote the rock : 
or the object of a relation ; as, 







Objective. 






He v/as in a 


boat. 






EXAMPLES OF 


CASES. 




Nominative. 


Objective. 




Objective. 


Henry 


wrote a letter 


with a 


pen. 


Charles 


saw the ship 


through 


a telescope. 


William 


has a dog 


in the 


house. 


The boy 


is sick 


in his 


bed. 


The man 


was 


in his 


room. 



53. When a noun or pronoun represents the person or thing addressed, 
it is said to be in the nominative case independent; that is, independent 
of any verb, or any declaration ; as, 

John, your father has come. 
John is said to be a noun, second person, singular number, nominative 
case independent. 

There is also a case absolute, which is thus formed : " The work having 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

been accomplished, the laborers withdrew." This form of expression is 
sanctioned by good custom, and it is scarcely worth while to disturb it : 
but it is to be regarded as an innovation. (See Syntax.) 

PARSING. 

The carpenter built a house near the bishop's church. 

The is a definite article, limiting carpenter; that is, limiting the 

word carpenter to express a particular member of that craft. 

carpenter . is a noun, because it is a name for a person of a particular 
employment ; it is a common noun, because it is applied to all 
persons of that employment ; it is in the third person, because 
it represents the person or object as spoken of; it is in the sin- 
gular number, because only one object is meant ; it is in the 
masculine gender, because denoting a male ; and it is in the 
nominative case, because it represents the carpenter as doing 
something — that is, the carpenter huilt. 

built .... is a verb, and agrees with carpenter, [g- 

a is an indefinite article, limiting house. 

house .... is a noun, because it is a name ; it is a noun common, because 
it is the general name of dwellings, common to all tenements ; 
it is in the third person, because the house is spoken of; it is 
in the singular number, because only one house is alluded to , 
it is in the objective case, because it is the recipient of an action 
— namely, of the action represented by the word built; it is 
the object of that action, and therefore in the objective case. 

near is a preposition, governing church, [i 

the is a definite article, limiting bishop'' s. 

bishop's . . is a noun, because it is the name of a person; it is a noun 
common, because common to all officers of that grade ; it is in 
the third person, because the object is spoken of; it is in the 
singular number, because only one bishop is alluded to (which 
may be known by there being an s after the apostrophe) ; it is 
in the possessive case, because the object is represented as 
denoting ownership or possession, and relates to the noun 
church. 

church ... is a noun, because it is a name ; a noun common, because it is 
common to all of a class of buildings ; in the third person, 
because spoken of; and in the objective case, because its rela- 
tion is pointed out by another word, viz., the word near. It is, 
therefore, governed by near. 
A bird's nest was on a branch of the tree. 
William's father has a garden in the country. 
The scholar will see, when he reaches the chapter on pronouns, the 

influence of words implying relation, upon the case, or spelling, of primary 

words. 

C2 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

KECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is a noun ? 

What is a common noun ? 

What is a proper noun ? 

Why will not a proper noun admit of an article before it ? 

What belong to nouns ? 

What is meant by the person of a noun ? 

What is meant by the second person ? 

What is meant by the third person ? 

What is to be understood by number ? 

What is the distinction between singular and plural ? 

What is gender ? 

How many genders are there ? 

What does the masculine gender denote ? 

What does the feminine gender denote ? 

What does the neuter gender denote ? 

When nouns are used expressive of either sex, alluding to neither 

in particular, of what gender are they to be considered? 
What is understood by case ? 
How many cases are there ? 
What is meant by nominative case ? 
What is meant by possessive case ? 
What is meant by objective case ? 

PRONOUNS. 

54. Pronouns are used to save an improper or too frequent 
use of the noun. Thus we say I (and not the name of the per- 
son speaking) am happy : John reads well, because he (and not 
John again) has learned his lesson. 

55. Pronouns have person, number, gender and case, as 
nouns. 

Thus, a pronoun in the first person represents the person speaking ; in 
the second, the person spoken to ; and in the third, the person spoken of. 

56. Pronouns are of four kinds : personal, relative, indefinite 
and possessive. 

57. Personal pronouns are used immediately for the nouns, to 
continue the sense as if the noun were repeated. 

Example. — I saw Charles, and^e told me that the book had appeared. 
A personal pronoun may be the subject of a sentence, which 
a relative can not be. 
Example.— 'Ife who is wise, may be happy. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



31 



The person, and, in general, the number and case, of the 
personal pronouns, are distinctly marked. 

DECLENSION. 

58. The declension of a pronoun signifies its changes on 
account of case. 

The first and second persons, being always supposed present, 
and their sex consequently known, have no variation on account 



of gender. 






The pronouns are thus declined : 






SING-ULAR NUMBER. 




Gender. Nominative case. 


Possessive case. 


Directive case 


first person, . I, . . 


. . my, . 


. . . me 


second person, . thou, . 


. . thy, . 


. . thee 


Masculine, . third person, . he, . . 


. . his, . 


. . . him 


Feminine, . . third person, . she, . 


. . her, . 


. . her 


Neuter, . . third person, . it, . . 


. . its, . 


. . it. 



PLURAL NUMBER. 
Nominative case. Possessive case, Directive case. 

first person, . we, our, .... us 

second person, . ye or you, . . . your, . . . you 
third person, . they, their, . . . them. 

There is no change in the plural number of the pronoun on account of 
gender. 

Examples. — The ladies have arrived ; you may hear them recite.— Tell 
the boys that they are dismissed.— I do not like the books, because they 
are badly printed. 

The personal pronoun it, is sometimes used in a very impersonal sense ; 
it occasionally represents a verb. For example : To err is human ; or, It 
is human to err. 

It is sometimes used for children; thus, The child is so small, that it 
will not hear you. In general, the neuter pronoun it, when used for per- 
sons, represents some diminutive (as, The little child; it is sick); and often 
it is used in ridicule. 

PARSING. 

I teach you. 

/ is a personal pronoun; it is a pronoun, because it stands for, or 

takes the place of, a noun (that would represent the person speak- 
ing) ; it is in the first person, because it represents the person 
speaking [57] ; it is in the singular number, because only one 
person is represented ; (the gender is not to be noted, as no varia- 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion is observable in the first person ;) it is in the nominative case, 
because it expresses the actor, or represents the object as 
doing, [49 

teach . . is a verb, and agrees with /. [g 

you ... is a personal pronoun ; it stands immediately for the names of the 
persons addressed, and those names might be used ; as, I teach 
you (that is, Charles and Mary) ; it is in the second person, be- 
cause it stands for the persons addressed ; it is in the plural num- 
ber, because it means more than one ; it is in the objective case, 
because it is the object of the action represented by the word 
teach. 
Let the scholar here decline the personal pronouns as in 58. 

Thou borrowedst his lesson for their sister. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, standing directly for the person ad- 
dressed ; it is in the second person, because it represents 
the person spoken to ; singular number, because only one 
is represented ; it is in the nominative case, because it repre- 
sents the action. (Decline the personal pronouns, 5S.) 

borrowedst . is a verb, agreeing with thou. [g 

his is a personal pronoun, in the third person, because it repre- 
sents the person spoken of; it is in the possessive case, be- 
cause it represents the owner or possessor of the lesson; 
and it belongs to lesson. (Decline the personal pronouns, 58.) 

lesson .... is a noun common; (why?) third person, singular number; 
(why ?) objective case, because it is the object of the verb 
horrowedst. 

for is a preposition, governing sister, [i 

their is a personal pronoun, standing for the persons alluded to ; in 

the third person, plural number ; and in the possesive case ; 
governed by the noun sister. (Decline the pronouns.) 

sister is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 

case, because it is connected with the other part of the sen- 
tence by the word /or, which expresses the relation of, and is 
said to govern, the word sister. 
It is proper here for scholars to understand that the case in which the 

noun or pronoun is placed by the intervention of such words as by, from, 

with, and under, is called objective, because the pronoun in that situation 

is spelled exactly as it is when it is the object of a verb ; as, love him, for 

him, teach her, for her, help me, with me. It would not do to say, with 

I, for she, for they, &c. 

59. The personal pronouns, myself, thyself, &C.5 are used 

when the nominative and objective cases represent the same 

person ; as, 

Charles loves himself,' 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

or when some new degree of emphasis is required ; as, 

He himself saw it. 
The reflective pronoun is also used to assist in givmg emphasis, 
or intensity ; as, 

Charles did it himself. She herself did it. 

Heaven itself would be invaded. 
Observation. Some grammarians have attempted to separate the pro- 
nominal part of these words from the adjunct, self and selves, making his, 
your, &c., adjectives, qualifying self or selves as nouns. That this divi- 
sion is not v/arranted by the genius of the language, is evident from the 
orthography of this form of the pronoun in the third person; thus, him- 
self, themselves: him and them can not be made adjectives. These pronouns 
should be styled reflective pronouns. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

60. The relative pronouns are : who, which, and that. They 
are used to explain some property or circumstance of the lead- 
ing sentence ; as, 

He who believes shall be saved. This is the man who wrote the book. 
This is the book which I purchased. 

61. The relative pronoun has invariably some word or circumstance, 
called its antecedent, to which it refers for number, person and gender ; 
that is, if the word to which the relative refers is in the plural number, 
the relative must be considered plural. 

62. The relative pronouns admit of no variation on account of number 
and person, and only who for case. Who is thus declined : 

Nominative who. Possessive whose. Objective whom. 

63. The relative, who, is used for persons only: 

Antecedent. 

This is the man who purchased the book. 

Antecedent. 

These are the persons w^hom you seek. 

64. In the possessive case, whose, as a relative, frequently has its ante- 
cedent in words representing inanimate, as well as animate objects — things 
as well as persons ; as. 

Antecedent. Relative. 

Forests, whose dark shades are impervious to heat. 

PARSING. 

The man who writes earns his bread. 
The .... is a definite article, limiting man. 

man .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, masculine 
3 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

gender; in the nominative case, because the man is declared to 
do something, viz., "the man earns;" therefore it is in the 
nominative case, to earn. 

who is a relative pronoun ; it is a pronoun, because it stands for a 

noun — it stands for man; (the word man is then its antecedent, 
from which it is to derive its number, person and gender, 61 ;) 
it is a relative pronoun, because it relates to and explains some 
circumstance of its antecedent, man, and derives its number 
and person from man; and as man was in the third person, 
singular number, masculine gender, so who must be the same. 
Who is then a relative pronoun (for persons), having man for its 
antecedent (61) ; of the third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender ; and in the nominative case. (The relative does 
not always agree with its antecedent in case.) 

writes ... is a verb, and agrees with who. [g- 

earns ... is a verb, and agrees with man. [g- 

his is a personal pronoun, relating to or standing for man; it is, 

therefore, in the third person, singular number, masculine gen- 
der, because the word man, for which it stands, has all these 
accidents; and as it signifies possession, or ownership, it is in 
the possessive case, and is governed by bread. (Decline the 
pronoun he.) 

bread ... is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 
case, and is governed by earns. [Something of the idea of 
government may be obtained by the scholar, if he would answer 
such a question as this : Would you say, " I respect he ?" or 
** I respect him ?" Him would be right, because it is the object 
of the action representing respect; and on declining the pro- 
noun, it will be seen that him, and not he, is in the objective 
case.] 

The boy who studies, increases his knowledge. 
He wrote the book which I own. 
The stream, whose current is rapid. 
In this last sentence, the word whose is a relative pronoun, having 

stream for its antecedent ; it is, therefore, in the third person, singular 

number, neuter gender, because stream has all these accidents ; it is in the 

possessive case, governed by current. 
Wliich is used for things only ; as, 
Antecedent. 

The books which you purchased. 

Antecedent. 

The bill which you gave to me is a counterfeit. 
65. The relative, that, may be used either for persons or things. 
In order to avoid tautology, that is generally introduced into a paragraph 
after one or two repetitions of who or which. 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

66, By common usage, that takes the place of whkh or wJio, when the 
word preceding the relative begins with wh; as, This is the wharf that I 
built. Whichy in such a sentence, would be an unpleasant alliteration. 

67. That is also used for who or which, when it follows the superlative 
degree of an adjective ; as, The poorest man that walks the street. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

68. Who, which, and what, are called interrogative pronouns 
w^hen they are used to ask questions ; they are in the same 
number in which it is supposed the word will be which is the 
expected answer. 

69. Who, as an interrogative pronoun, relates to a person; as, Who 
wrote the book ? Ans. Voltaire wrote it. 

70. What asks only in relation to a whole species, or to an individual 
indefinitely ; as, What do you desire ? Ans. Water ; a man ; a chair. 

71. Which asks definitely ; as, Which will you have ; this or that ? 
Whichf as an interrogative, is generally an adjective. [See Adjectives.] 

PARSING. 

Who formed your spirit? 

Who .... is an interrogative pronoun ; as the answer could scarcely fail 
of being " God," it would be said that it is in the third person, 
singular number. Who is in the nominative case : Nom. who; 
Poss. whose; Obj. whom. 

formed . . is a verb, agreeing with who. 

your .... is a personal pronoun, standing directly for the persons ad- 
dressed ; it is in the second person, plural number, possessive 
case, and governed by (or denoting the owner or possessor of) 
spirit. 

spirit ... is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 
case, because its object is represented as receiving some action 
(represented hy formed) ; it is, therefore, governed hy formed. 
Who heard your lesson ? What makes you cry ? 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

72. Indefinite pronouns are, none, some, any, much, &c. ; 
they refer to an indefinite antecedent. 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

73. Possessive pronouns are words derived from personal 
pronouns, which refer both to a thing possessed and its pos- 
sessor. They are thus formed ; 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



From I 



and me comes mine. 



thou 
he 
she 
we 



thee . 
him . 
her , 
us 



thine, 
his. 
hers, 
ours. 



you •* yours. 

they and them ...... ** theirs. 

They may be either nominative or objective ; as, You have a new book, 
mme is old. You read his letter, but you neglected theirs. 

74. Thine, mine, yours, &c., stand invariably for two words, an adjec- 
tive and noun; thus, They have my book, and I have thine ; i. e., thy 
book. You respect my friends less than I do yours. 

PARSING. 

Mine are good pens, thine are bad. 

mi7ie .... is a possessive pronoun, derived from the personal pronouns / 
and me, and referring also to pens; it is in the third person, 
because pens, which it really means, is in the third person; (all 
possessive pronouns are in the third person ;) it is in the plural 
number, because pe7ts is in the plural number ; it is in the nomi- 
native case, because it is represented as being; it is nominative 
to are, 

thine .... is a possessive pronoun, from the personal pronouns thine and 
thee; it relates to pens, having that word for its antecedent, and 
is therefore in the third person, plural number; it is in the 
nominative case. 
He took my books, and left yours. 

COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

75. Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever 
and what, are called compound pronouns, because they involve 
the relative and antecedent; thus. Whoever subscribes may 
introduce a visiter, is equal to. Any person who subscribes may 
introduce a visiter. 

This pronoun, like who, admits of a declension, thus : Nominative, 
v)hoever, whosoever; Possessive, whosesoever; Objective, whomsoever. 

76. Whatever or whatsoever, as a pronoun, is equal to any thing which. 

77. What is equal to that (or those) which; as, I love what (i. e., that 
which) another may hate. 

78. As these compound pronouns stand for more than one word, each 
of them may be in two cases: *'He eats whatever comes in his way." 
Whatever is the objective of eats, and the nominative oi comes. "I know 
not what I should say ;" i. e., I know not that which I should say. Here, 
that is the objective of know, and which the objective of say. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

PARSING. 

He chastens whomsoever he loves. 

He is a personal pronoun, ihh'd person, singular number, nomi- 
native case. (Decline the personal pronouns, ^8,) 

chastens ... is a verb, and agrees v^ith he. [& 

whomsoever . is a compound relative pronoun for persons ; (as a relative 
pronoun, it has person, or man, for its antecedent ; and the 
sentence may be thus changed, *'He chastens the person 
whom he loves ;") it is in the objective case, and, being com- 
pound, it represents its object (that is, the person referred 
to) as receiving two actions — he is chastened and is loved. It 
is governed by chastens and by loves. 

He takes whatever pleases him. 
whatever ... is a compound relative pronoun for things ; (the sentence may 
be thus changed, " He takes every thing that pleases him ;") 
it is in the third person, singular number, and is in the objec- 
tive case, governed by takes; it is in the nominative case ^o 
the word pleases. 
Let the scholar parse the whole of the sentence. 
Take whosesoever you see. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is a pronoun ? 

What belong to pronouns ? 

How many kinds of pronouns are there ? 

How are personal pronouns used ? 

What is understood by declension ? 

How are personal pronouns declined ? 

What are themselves, himself, herself, &c., called? 

What words are relative pronouns ? 

What is the use of the relative pronoun ? 

From what does the relative derive its person and number ? 

Do relatives admit of any variation on account of number and 

person ? 
Which of them is declinable ? 
How is who declined ? 
For what is who used ? 
For what is which used ? 
How may that be used ? 
Which are the interrogatives ? 
What is the use of who ? 
How is what used ? 
How is which used ? 

D 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What are possessive pronouns ? 

How are they derived ? 

What words are compound pronouns ? 

How is WHOEVEU declined ? 

What words are included in what? 

ADJECTIVES. 
79. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun, to repre- 
sent more distinctly the person or thing of which it is the name ; 
serving to assist the noun in distinguishing its object from an- 
other of the same species ; as, 

The old man, and not the young man. 

Those are soft pens, and not hard pens. 

This book is better than that book. 
The scholar should be made to understand the difference between quali- 
fying and expressing a quality. The adjective qualifies the word that is a 
noun, to represent more distinctly the object of which it is the name. 
Thus, house is a noun: if we say that house, we use that to qualify the 
noun, to represent more distinctly the house by position. If we say green 
house, we express by green only a quality in the building, and not in the 
noun. The word green qualifies house, to represent more distinctly its 
object (the building), by referring to the color. 

PARSING. 

The old coat shamed the new vest. 

The .... is a definite article, limiting coat. 

old is an adjective, qualifying the noun coat; that is, it qualifies the 

word coat to express more fully the state or situation of the 
particular thing for which the word coat is the name. 

coat is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der (because it expresses no sex), and is in the nominative case 
to the word shamed. 

ike is a definite article, limiting vest. 

new is an adjective, qualifying vest; that is, enabling the word vest 

to represent more distinctly the particular garment of which it 
is the name. 

vest is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 

case ; it is the objective case of the word shamed. 
In the following sentence, let the scholar point out the adjectives: The 

warm weather induced the young people to put on light clothes, and 

to seek cool retreats from the meridian heat. 
It has been remarked that almost every word (excepting the possessive 

cases of nouns and pronouns, and the articles) that will make sense with 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

the word thing placed after it, is an adjective ; as, a good thing, an excel- 
lent thing, the thing, some thing. The remarls. is rather a hint to young 
scholars, than a rule of etymology. 

80. There are six kinds of adjectives : common, pronominal, 
possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and numeral. 

COMMON ADJECTIVES. 

81. A common adjective qualifies a noun by expressing some 
quality, situation or property of the object of the noun ; as, the 
new book, high wall. 

82. Most common adjectives admit of three degrees, denoting 
different relative degrees of quality ; thus. 

Wise, wiser, wisest. 

83. The adjective, in its first state, expresses the quality, 
situation, &c., without any immediate relation to other objects : 
this is called the positive degree ; thus, 

Solon was a wise man. 

84. The second degree of the adjective expresses either an 
increase or diminution of the same idea, by a relation to some 
other object or situation ; as, 

Solorion was wiser than Solon : 
this is called the comparative degree. 

85. The third state of the adjective expresses the same idea 
of quality in its highest or lowest state ; as, 

Solomon was the wisest man. 
This is called the superlative degree. 

Great, large and hig are used by some persons as synonymous words ; 
custom has done much towards destroying the real difference. There 
appears, however, to be a particular use for each, which none of the others 
can perform. 

Great is properly allied to the mind, to the measurement of capacities, 
&c., as, " Washington was a great man;" "He was a man of great ac 
quire ments ;" " The Great Spirit." 

Large is used in relation to bodies ; as, A large house ; A large man, 

but not great, because he is ignorant. It is frequently used to express 

breadth, or thickness, and sometimes both, in opposition to length. Ex- 

^ ample: "■ The field is as large as it is long." /' The mast of the ship was 

sufficiently large, but it was not long enough." 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Big expresses some preternatural swelling or increase : 

" The great, the important day, big with the fate 
Of Cato and of Rome." 
*'And every groan she heav'd, was big with horror/' 

86. The change which the adjective undergoes in expressing these dif- 
ferent degrees, is called comparison. 

COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

87. Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by 
annexing er for the comparative, and est for the superlative 
degree. 

EXAMPLES. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Rich Richer Richest. 

Short Shorter Shortest. 

88. There are a few adjectives which do not admit of this manner of 
comparison ; these are called irregular : 

EXAMPLES. 

Positive. ' Comparative. Superlative. 

Good better best 

Bad, evil or ill . . worse worst 

Far farther or further . . farthest or furthest 

Late later latest or last 

Much or many . . more most 

Near nearer nearest or next 

Old older or elder . . . oldest or eldest 

89. Adjectives of more than one syllable are compared with the adverbs 
more or less in the comparative, and most or least in the superlative degree. 

EXAMPLES . 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

elegant . . . more or less elegant most or least elegant 

beautiful . . more or less beautiful .... most or least beautiful. 

Some adjectives, from their nature, do not require any comparison ; such 
as, round, square, and perfect. 

90. Many dissyllables ending in y, er, silent e, and those accented on the 
last syllable, are often compared like monosyllables by er and est. For 
example : 

happy happier happiest 

noble nobler noblest 

profound .... profounder .... profoundest. 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

PARSING. 

The old book contained more practical lessons for the youngest persons. 

The is a definite article, limiting hook. 

old is a common adjective, [81] because it expresses some quality 

or property in the object of the noun hook; it is in the posi- 
tive degree of comparison, and is thus compared : Positive, 
old; Comparative, older; Superlative, oldest. It qualifies the 
noun hook. 

hook is a noun common, in the third person, singular number, 

neuter gender, and in the nominative case to contained. 

contained . . is a verb, because it represents the being or doing of hook, 
and agrees v^ith its nominative hook, [g 

more is an adverb, qualifying the adjective practical. 

practical ... is a common adjective [81] ; it is in the comparative degree, 
and is thus compared : Positive, practical; Comparative, more 
practical ; Superlative, most practical [89] . It qualifies the 
noun lessons. 

lessons .... is a noun common, in the third person, plural number, be- 
cause it means more than one lesson ; neuter gender [43] , 
and in the objective case ; it is the object oi contained, and is 
therefore governed by that verb. 

for is a preposition ; it shows the relation between lessons and 

persons; it governs the noun persons, 

the is a definite article, limiting ;?erso?is. 

youngest ... is a common adjective, in the superlative degree of compa- 
rison; it is thus compared: Positive, young; Comparative, 
younger; Superlative, youngest. It relates to, and therefore 
qualifies, persons. 

perso7is ... is a noun common, third person, because spoken of; plural 
number, objective case, and governed by the preposition for. 

[By reading the sentence, "The book contained more practical lessons 
for the youngest persons," the force or governing power of the word /or, 
on the sense, will be perceived ; and by substituting the pronoun them for 
*'the youngest persons," the influence of the word upon the case will be 
observed. One could not correctly say, for they. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

91. Pronominal adjectives are of a mixed nature; they par- 
ticipate in the nature of the pronoun and the adjective. They 
are thus divided : distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. 

D2 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

92. Distributive adjectives are : each, every, either, neither ; 
they refer to things considered individually ; as, 

Every person was destroyed. Each person was silent. 

Eitlier is often confounded with each. Either refers to one of a class 
indefinitely; as, ** You have two excellent books ; as I do not need both, 
and as there is no difference, I will take either.''^ Each refers definitely to 
the individuals of a class ; as, *' He had a book in each hand." 

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

93. Demonstrative adjectives point out with precision the 
object of their relation ; they are, such, which, former, latter, 
other, (preceded by the definite article, the other,) this and these, 
that and those. 

This relates to an object near, with these for its plural ; that relates to 
an object at a greater distance, with those for its plural ; as, This book 
which I have in my hand, is better than that book on the shelf. 

94. Some, many, much, any, and a few other similar words, 
may be considered indefinite adjectives ; all^ either as a pronoun 
or adjective, may be termed collective, 

95. When two persons or things are mentioned, that relates to the for- 
mer, this to the latter ; as. The Schuylkill and the Delaware are beautiful 
rivers ; this (the Delaware) forms the eastern, that (the Schuylkill) the 
western boundary of Philadelphia. 

96. The adjective such is often misused for those. Such only refers to a 
noun representing persons or things, in relation to a whole class ; thus, 
^^Such men as you have mentioned, may be trusted :" such men [as those 
are whom] you have mentioned, may be trusted: i. e., no particularly 
named men, but only any of that kind. 

97. Those, on the contrary, refers to the noun definitely; as, Those 
men whom you mentioned may be trusted ; i. e., the very persons named, 
and not every person like them. 

98. Which and what, when used as adjectives, retain their respective 
pronominal qualities. A noun qualified by what, or whatever, appears to 
have two cases, as the pronoun what has : thus, I know not what book I 
want ; i. e., I know not the book which I want. 

99. The adjectives which and what, when used in asking questions, are 
called interrogative adjectives, and seem to find a relative word in the 
manner of pronouns. For example : Which book will you have ? 
Answer. I will have that book ; or, What book will you have ? Answer. 
I will have a Grammar. 

The difference between which and what, as adjectives, is similar to that 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

])etween the same words as pronouns, when used interrogatively. Which 
is more definite, more demonstrative, and more particular. As an inter- 
rogative, which is answered by this, that, the other; while what is usually 
answered by some noun. For example : Which book will you have ? 
Answer. I will take this, or that, or any other, or any one. — What book 
will you have ? Answer. I will have a work on history, or on philoso- 
phy, &c. 

100. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun or pronoun 
to which it relates, the adjective expresses a positive quality of the object, 
and it is not said to qualify the noun or pronoun ; as. The man is good and 
wise. Good and wise are not used directly to distinguish one man from 
another, but merely to express positive qualities of the person spoken of. 

PARSING . 

Each man earns some money. 

Each is a distributive pronominal adjective ; (it is distributive, be- 
cause, while it implies that all the men referred to earn, it 
alludes to only one directly ;) it qualifies man. 

man is a noun common ; (why ?) third person ; (why ?) singular 

number ; (why ?) masculine gender ; (why ?) and in the nomi- 
native case to the verb earns. 

earns is a verb, because it represents the action of some one ; and 

as it represents the action of man, it is said to agree with its 
nominative, man. 

some is an indefinite pronominal adjective [see 94] ; it qualifies 

money. [Some seems occasionally to have a comparative 
in more, and a superlative in most; as, He has some books — 
he has more books than she — he has the most books of all. 
But it will be found, on examination, that some is too indefi- 
nite to allow the use of the word as before and after it, as 
does the word good — "as good as ;" and consequently it can 
not be compared, and ought not to be considered in any de 
gree. More and most are part of the comparison of mtich for 
quantity, and many for number.] 

money .... is a noun ; (why ?) third person ; (why ?) singular number ; 
(why ?) neuter gender, because it has no reference to sex ; it 
is in the objective case, because it represents the article for 
which it stands as the object of some action {earns), uuid Is 
therefore governed by the verb earns. 

Every book has its own place. 
Every .... is a distributive adjective, (why?) qualifying book, 
hook i<=5 a noun common (?), third person (why), singular numbor 

(?), neuter gender (?), in the nominative case to the verb has. 
has is a verb, and agrees with its nominative, book. (What has? 

Answer, The book has.) 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

its is a personal pronoun ; as a pronoun, it stands for hook; (that 

is, the, hook''s own place ;) it is in the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, possessive case, and governed by the 
noun hook. 

own .... is a possessive adjective, standing for its, and qualifying ^Zace. 
[The v^ord own seems only to give emphasis to a possessive 
case, and is almost invariably, w^hen used as an adjective and 
not as a verb, preceded by some noun or pronoun in the pos- 
sessive case ; as, John's own house ; He came to his own (peo- 
ple), and his own (people) received him not. 

pJace ... is a noun, &c. 

Which book contains the lessons. 

Which. . .is an interrogative demonstrative adjective, qualifying hook. 

hook .... is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 
neuter gender (?), and in the nominative case to the verb con- 
tains — (the hook contains). 

contains . . is a verb, and agrees with hook, [a 

the is a definite article (?), limiting lessons. 

lessons . . is a noun common (?), third person (?), plural number, because 
more than one lesson is meant ; it is in the objective case, and 
governed by the verb contains. 

In the sentence, ''He turned to the book of Romans, which book con- 
tained the lesson of the day," the word which is parsed as a demonstrative 
adjective, qualifying the word hook. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

101. Numeral adjectives express number and order; as, one, 
two, three ; or, first, second, third. They are of two kinds : 

102. Those which express the number are called cardinal 
adjectives ; as, one boy, two books, three children : those which 
express the order are called ordinal adjectives ; as, the Jirst boy, 
the sixth book. 

Any number, however high it may be, is an adjective ; as 35, thirty- 
Jive^ &c. 

The word one has various significations ; usually it is a * * numeral 
adjective" — one man, and not two men. It sometimes assumes the form 
of a demonstrative or indefinite adjective; as, ''Some people say one 
thing, and some another." Occasionally the word takes the form of a 
noun; as, for example, ^^One scarcely knows how to avoid the disease." 
*' He would know one's father by the child's look." ** Some o7ie may tell 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

you," &.C. Many grammarians call one, in these examples, a nomi; and 
many denominate it a substitute, like a pronoun. 

It is deemed proper here to make a remark upon the distinction between 
articles and adjectives, as several writers, whose opinions are otherwise 
entitled to much respect, have recently sustained a heresy which confounds 
those two distinct parts of speech. The error consists, not so much in 
the similarity of the use of the words a and the, and this and these, as in 
the definition given of their uses as parts of speech. If the definition of 
each part of speech is correctly given, then it will be easy to distinguish 
between their office. For example : 

ARTICLE. • 

The Article is a word used to limit a noun, to distinguish between its 
particular object, and another object of cT^o^^er kind. For example : ''It 
was A m<2w, and not an angel, that made the declaration:" here is the 
indefinite article. More definitely it may be said, '*! saw the man, but I 
could not discover the woman." 

ADJECTIVE. 

The Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun, to distinguish between 
the object which it represents, and another object of the same kind, I'or 
example : "I saw one man there, and only one man— not two, or three, 
or four men, as you represented;" or, to speak more demonstratively , " I 
saw that man, but I could not find the other man." "I found the old book, 
but the new (book) was lost." 

Now, apply the article and the adjective in a sentence together: "A 
man rode that horse, while 3, child rode this horse." Here, man, being 
limited by an article, has its antithesis in a child, representing a different 
kind of objects ; while the word horse, qualified by an adjective, has its 
antithesis in horse, representing two objects of the same kind. 

The indefinite article a or an is often cited as meaning exactly what the 
numeral adjective one expresses ; and hence it is said they ought to be 
regarded as of the same class of v/ords. It is believed that the difference 
in the uses is sufficient to warrant a different classification. For example ; 
^^A boy may drive one horse ; but it takes a man to drive two horses." ">4 
horse will draw as much as a mule; and 07ie ox will draw as much as an- 
other (ox)." 

In each of the above cited examples, the article^a refers to objects of 
different kinds ; while the word one is made to correspond with the w^ord 
two, and thus qualify nouns that refer to objects of the same kind. 

It is not denied that, in many instances, articles and adjectives are used 
in a way to indicate a close approximation in their character ; but the 
general uses of the words are so distinct as to authorize the distinction 
given to them in the work, and to allow to the articles a separate rank, as 
a substantive part of speech. The same approximation is found between 
certain adverbs and conjunctions, and between certain pronouns and ad- 



4G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

jectives; but the distinctive appellation of words must be derived from 
the general use ; and occasional affinities must not be cited as authority 
for the entire fusion of parts of speech. 

PARSING. 

January has thirty-one days. 

January . , . is a noun proper, because it is the particular name of the first 
month (the common name is month) ; it is in the third per- 
son (?), singular number (?), neuter gender (?), and in the 
nominative case to the verb has. 

has ,is a verb, agreeing with January. 

thirty -one . . is a cardinal numeral adjective (it is numeral, because it ex- 
presses number ; and it is cardinal, because it expresses the 
particular amount or quantity of the number), qualifying 
days. 

days ...... is a noun common (?), third person (?), plural number (?), 

neuter gender (?), objective case, and is governed by has. 

The second day. 

The is a definite article, limiting day. 

second .... is an ordinal numeral adjective ; numeral because it relates to 
number, and ordinal because it shows the order in which the 
day occurs in the whole number of days, viz., the first day, 
the second day ; hence, an ordinal adjective, though the thou 
sandth, qualifies a noun in the singular number. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is an adjective ? 

How many kinds of adjectives are there ? 

What is meant by a common adjective ? 

How many degrees are usual in a common adjective ? 

What does the adjective express in its first degree? 

What is this degree called ? 

What is expressed by the second degree ? 

What is this degree called ? 

What is expressed by the third degree ? 

What is this degree called ? 

What is meant by comparing an adjective ? 

What do GREAT, LARGE, and BIG, severally express? 

How are adjectives of one syllable compared ? 

Compare the adjective rich. 

Why are good and bad irregular adjectives ? 

Compare good and bad. 

How are adjectives of more than one syllable compared ? 

Compare elegant and beautiful. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

What adjectives do not require comparing? 
How is the adjective whose used? 
What words are distributive adjectives? 
To what do distributive adjectives refer? 
What is the office of demonstrative adjectives ? 
What words are demonstratives ? 
How does SUCH qualify the noun ? 
What is the office of this and these ? 
How do that and those relate ? 
What are numeral adjectives? 

What are those adjectives called which express the number? 
What are those called which express the order ? 
How is a noun affected by being qualified by what ? 
What does an adjective express, having the substantive verb 
between itself and its primary ? 

VERBS. 

103. A Verb is a word which expresses beings or doings or 
suffering ; as, write, be, sing, is sung. In general, verbs ex- 
press the action, or being, of some subject ; as, 

Verl. Verb. 

John writes. The boy is sick. 

104. Verbs are, to a sentence, what a vowel is to a word ; that 
IS, as without a vowel no v>^ord can be formed, so, without a 
verb, no perfect sentence, however short, can be made. 

105. Verbs are either transitive, or intransitive. 

TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

106. A transitive verb represents an action or possession, 
terminating on some object ; as. 

Agent. Verb. Object. 

Moses smote the rock. 
Charles has a book. 

William loves the Bible. 

In the above sentences, the verbs smote, has and loves, pass off from 
their respective agents to the objects, rock, book and Bible, and are, conse- 
quently, transitive. 

INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

107. An intransitive verb declares a heing, or represents an 
action, which does not pass on to any object ; as, 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Agent Verb. 
The wheel turns. 
The child cries. 
The candle burns. 
In the above examples, the verbs turns, cries and burns, declare actions 
which do not pass on to any expressed objects ; they are, consequently, 
intransitive verbs. 

108. If a verb has any objective case expressed, it is transitive ; if it 
has none, it is intransitive. Verbs which appear transitive in their nature, 
may frequently be used intransitively: thus, in the sentence, "The boy 
turns the wheel," the verb turns, as it is declared to affect the wheel, is 
transitive; but in the following sentence, *' The wheel turns,'' the verb 
turns, expressing the action without relation to any objective case, is 
intransitive. 

109. Verbs intransitive in their nature are seldom made transitive ; as, 
grow, rise, sit, lie, arrive, go, and come. 

PARSING. 

Gibbon wrote a history. 

Gihbon is a noun ; and, because it is the name of a person, it is a 

noun proper ; it is in the third person, singular number (only 
one person is spoken of) ; it is in the masculine gender, be- 
cause a male is spoken of, and in the nominative case. (A 
noun or pronoun is in the nominative case to the word which 
declares its existence or action. Now, if the scholar ask, 
What did Gibbon do ? he will find at once that the answer is 
wrote — lie Y^YOie-, then Gihbon is in the nominative case to 
wrote.) 

wrote is a verb, because it asserts the action of some person (it 

asserts or declares something of Gibbon) ; it is a transitive 
verb, because the action which it represents passes on to 
some object (that is, he wrote a history) ; wrote agrees whh or 
belongs to Gibbon. 

a is an indefinite article, limiting history, and serving to distin- 
guish that work from another of a different kind ; thus, Gib- 
bon wrote a history, not a poem. 

listory is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 

case ; objective, because it represents its object, the history, 

as receiving the action represented by wrote; it is therefore 

in the objective case, and is governed by wrote. 

Examples.— Charles respects her. William studies his lesson. 

The girls sing. 

The is a definite article, limiting girls. (The word the does not 

limit the number oi i\iQ girls, but it shows that the word girls 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

stands for some particular persons ; while girls, without the 
article the, would signify the whole class of girls. For ex- 
ample, '' Girls sing ;" that is, generally, all girls sing. ** The 
girls sing;" the girls of one school, of one church, or one 
family, or any girls to whom particular reference is made. 
girls is a noun common (?), third person (?), plural number, femi- 
nine gender, and in the nominative case, because some action 
is said to be performed by girls ; it is nominative to the verb 



sing is a verb, because it represents the action of girls; it is an 

intraTisitive verb [107] , because the action which it represents 
does not pass on to any object (it is not said that girls sing 
songs) ; it agrees with girls. 
Examples. — The boys cypher. The children play. Books amuse. 

OF AGREEMENT. 

110. YerhshdiWQ number diudi person. The number and per- 
son of a verb correspond with the noun or pronoun whose action 
or being is represented ; and this correspondence is called agree- 
ment ; thus, 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Nom, Case. Verb. Norn. Case. Verb. 

We say, in the first person, I . . . . love, or I . . . . am. 

in the second person, thou . . lovest, or thou . . art. 

in the third person, he . . . loves, or he . . . is. 

*' '* ** she . . . loves, or she ... is. 

In the above examples, the form or spelling of the verb is changed on 
every application of the nominative pronoun. This shows the agreement 
of the verb with its nominative case in person. You can not say "JTe 
am," because he is a pronoun in the third person, and am is a verb in the 
first person ; and thus the verb does not correspond or agree with the 
nominative case, as it is required to do by the section 110. But the rule 
above (110) says that verbs must agree or correspond with their nominative 
case in number, as well as in person; that is, if the nominative case is 
plural, the verb must also be one that is used to express the being or doing 
of more than one. For example ; 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

Nom. Case. Verb. Nom. Case. Verb. 

We say, in the first person, we love, or we are. 

in the second person, ye or you . love, or ye or you . are. 

in the third person, they .... love, or they .... are. 
In the above cases, it will be observed that there is no change in the 
verb, in the plural number ; for we can apply any one of the verbs to any 

4 E 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

one of the nominative pronouns : but we can not say ''i are;^^ for, though 
are is in the first person, and would thus agree or correspond with I in 
person, yet are is in the plural number, and 1 is in the singular; and the 
verb are does not agree with the nominative / in number, as the section 
110 requires, 

PARSING. 

Charles resigned his crown. 

Charles ... is a noun proper, because it is the particular name of a per- 
son; it is in the third person (?), singular number (?), mascu- 
line gender (?); it is in the nominative case, because it is 
the actor, and nominative case to the verb resigned. 

resigned ... is a verb, because it expresses the action of some agent 
(Charles) ; it is a transitive verb, because it passes on to some 
object ; that is, he resigned something ; it is in the third per- 
son, because Charles is in the third person ; it is in the singu- 
lar number; and, therefore, it agrees with its nominative, 
Charles, in number and person. 

his »..,.. As a. personal pronoun, having Charles for its antecedent ; it 
is in the third person, singular number, [decline the personal 
pronouns, 58] and is governed by crown. 

crown is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 

and in the objective case, governed by the verb resigned. 
William conquered England. Wellington defeated Napoleon. 

OF MOOD AND TENSE. 

111. Mood and tense are peculiar characteristics of the verb. 

112. Mood is the manner in which the verb represents the 
being or action ; as, Hate sin ; I do hate sin ; I can hate sin. 

MOODS. 

113. There are five moods of the verb : Indicative, Potential, 
Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

114. The indicative mood simply declares action, or being, 

or asks a question, in present, past, or future time; as, I go; 

Charles came ; he will depart ; will he depart 7 

As the verb is the most important part of speech, it is deemed best to 
present portions of its various parts, for the consideration of the pupil, 
before he enters upon a full examination of all its divisions. We shall 
therefore present the principal parts of the indicative mood ; to do which, 
something o^ tense must be understood. 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

TENSE. 
115. Tense is the modification of a verb in relation to time. 
There are six tenses. 

116. There are three independent, or leading tenses of the verb, called 
'past, present, and future tenses ; they express past, present, or future ac- 
tion according to their names, without relation to any other time ; as, I 
write (now) ; I wrote (yesterday) ; I shall or will write (to-morrow). 

The scholar may be informed that the past tense is by many gramma- 
rians denominated the imperfect tense. The designation is wholly incor- 
rect ; but it is in very general use. 

PARTIAL CONJUGATION. 

117. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several parts — its moods, tenses, number 
and person ; that is, by conjugating the verb, we show how it is 
spelled, or how the words are combined to make the different 
meanings of the various moods and tenses represented by the 
verb. 

Conjugation of the Verb "io2;e." 

The following is the conjugation of the verb love in the three leading 
tenses, viz., present tense, past tense, and future tense, of the 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
The present tense signifies a present time, 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Nominative Case. Verb. 

First person . . I love (now) 

Second person . . thou lovest 

Third person . . he, she or it loves 

It will be seen by the above that the verb is spelled differently as it 
represents the action of the first person (7), the second person (thou), and 
the third person (Jie, she, it, or any noun in the singular number) ; and it 
would be the same with any other verbs. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

Nominative Case, Verb. 

First person ... we love (now) 

Second person . . . ye or you love 

Third person . . . they ........ love 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the plural number of this tense, there is no difference in the spelling 
of the verb ; it is love in all the three persons ; that is, the root of the verb 
is retained. 

PARSING. 

Thou lovest sincerity. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person (?), singular num- 
ber (?), and in the nominative case to the verb lovest. (De- 
cline the personal pronouns, 58.) 

lovest is a verb, because it expresses the action or existence of the 

person represented by thou; it is a transitive verb, because 
it passes on to something, viz., sincerity; it is in the indica- 
tive mood, because it simply indicates or declares the action 
of some one ; it is in the present tense, because it expresses 
the present time, and agrees in number and person with its 
nominative, thou, according to section 110. If the word had 
been loves, it would not agree in person with thou, because 
thou is in the second person, and loves is in the third, though 
both are in the singular number ; and if it were love, it would 
not agree whh thou in number, because love is in the plural 
number, and thou is in the singular number. (Conjugate the 
verb love in the indicative mood, present tense, as given 
above.) 

sincerity ... is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 
neuter gender (?), objective case, and is governed by lovest — 
thou lovest sincerity. 
I love truth. The angels worship God. 

Bad men fear the laws. Good men respect them. 

Past Tense. 
The verb in the past tense represents a time past. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 
Nominative Case. Verb, 

First person, I loved yesterday (or last week) 

Second person, thou lovedst 

Third person, he, she or it .... loved 

In this case, the verb in the singular number has a change in the spell- 
ing only for the second person, lovedst; while in the first and third person 
it is spelled alike. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

Nominative Case. Verb. 

First person . . we loved (last year) 

Second person . . ye or you loved 

Third person . . they loved 

The verb is spelled alike in all of the persons of the plural number. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

PARSING. 

He loved a title. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the third person (?), singular num- 
ber (?), masculine gender (?), and nominative case to loved. 

loved is a verb (it is a transitive verb, because the action which it 

represents passes off from the agent, he, to title) ; it is in the 
third person (if it were in the second person, it would be 
lovedst) ; singular number ; indicative mode, because it indi- 
cates an action; and it is in the past tense, and agrees with 
its nominative, he, in number and person. 

a ........ is an indefinite article, limiting title. 

title is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 

neuter gender (?), objective case, and is governed by the tran- 
sitive verb loved. 
You proved your claim. She tried the lock. 

The scholar should conjugate the verbs proved and loved in the present 

and past tense of the indicative mood. 

Future Tense. 

118. The future tense denotes a future time. 

This tense is always distinguished by the word will, or shall; as, I 
shall write ; John will read. Will and shall are taken with the words 
they accompany, and called one verb ; thus, will love is a verb in the 
future tense, and shall love is also a verb in the future tense. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 
'Nominative Case. Verb. ISIominative Case. Verb. 

1st person, I will love, or I shall love 

2d person, thou wilt love, or thou ..... shalt love 

3d person, he or she . . . will love, or he or she , . . shall love 

PLURAL NUMBER. 
Nominative Case. Verb. Nominative Case. Verb. 

1st person, we will love, or we ..... shall love 

2d person, ye or you . . . will love, or ye or you . . shall love 

3d person, they .... will love, or they .... shall love 

The scholar will notice that the only variation in the verb, in this tense, 
is in the second person singular, shalt and wilt. The rest are all shall and 
will, added to the root of the verb love; and, added to the root of any 
other verb, they would make it in the future tense, indicative mood; as, 
I shall walk, he will ride, we shall read, you shall sing. 

PARSING. 

You shall love the book. 

You is a personal pronoun, second person (?), plural number (?), 

and nominative case to the verb shall love. 
E2 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



shall love . . is a verb in the indicative mood, because it indicates an ac- 
tion ; it is in the future tense, because the action is yet to take 
place ; it is in the second person, plural number, and agrees 
with its nominative, you^ in number and person. 

the is a definite article, limiting hook. 

hook is a noun common, third person (?), singular number (?), 

neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed by the 
verb shall love. • 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

119. The infinitive mood expresses an action or being in an 

unlimited sense, without relation to any nominative ease, and 

is, consequently, without number or person ; as, to love ; to 

write. 

When we speak of a verb, without reference to the mood or tense, we 
frequently refer to the infinitive mood. Thus, we say the verb **to love" 
expresses affection ; though the verb, without regard to mood and tense, 
is called the root; thus, sing, daiice and love are roots from which all the 
changes of mood and tense are wrought. 



PARSING. 

Charles teaches Mary to write. 

Charles ... is a noun proper (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 
masculine gender (?), and in the nominative case to the verb 
teaches. 

teaches .... is a verb transitive, because it represents action passing on to 
something {Mary) ; it is in the third person, and in the sin- 
gular number, because Charles is of the same number and 
person ; it is in the indicative mood, because it really indi- 
cates the action (that is, it does not say he might teach, or can 
teach ; but really that he does teach) ; it is in the present 
tense, because it declares that " Charles teaches" now; (if 
the action were 2>asf, we should say, '* Charles taught ;^^ if it 
wexe future, or to take place to-morrow, we should say, 
** Charles wi'ZZ teach^^) ; it agrees with its nominative, Charles, 
in number and person. 

Mary is a noun proper (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 

feminine gender, and objective case, governed by the transi- 
tive verb teaches. 

to write, ... is a verb of the infinitive mood, present tense. [The infini- 
tive mood is generally (not always) known by the sign to; 
thus, to walk, to dance, to sing, to play, to read: these verbs 
are all in the infinitive mood.] 



ETYMOLOGY. 



55 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

120. The potential mood expresses the power, liberty, will, 

duty, or possibility, of an action or being ; as, I can go, I may 

write, I should write* 

This mood is always known by certain signs, as is the future tense of 
the indicative mood. The signs of the potential mood are muy, can, must, 
might, could, would, should. Any one of these signs, applied to a verb, 
causes it to be in the potential mood. For example, 

John can write. William could swim. 

The boys must recite. The girls could dance. 

In the above example, the verbs are all in the potential mood. 

Present Tense. 

The signs of the present tense of the potential mood are may, can, 
must. 

SING-ULAR NUMBER. 

1st person, I may love . I can love . I must love 

2d person, thou mayest love . thou canst love . thou must love 
3d person, he may love . he can love . he must love 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

1st person, we . . . may love .we ... can love .we ... must love 
2d person, ye or you may love . ye or you can love . ye or you must love 
3d person, they . . may love . they . . can love . they . . must love 

The only change in the spelling is in the sign of the second person, sin- 
gular number, mayest and canst. The rest are all alike. 

PARSING. 

You must love the book. 

You is a personal pronoun, second person (?), plural number (?), 

nominative case to must love. 

must love . . is a verb, because it declares something of you; it is a transi- 
tive verb, because it declares an action passing from you to 
book; it is in the second person, plural number ; in the poten- 
tial mood, for it expresses the duty of loving (it does not indi- 
cate that you do love) ; it is in the present tense, because a 
present time is designated ; and it agrees with its nominative, 
you, in number and person. (See the conjugation in this 
tense above.) 

the is a definite article, limiting hook. 

hook is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 

neuter gender (?), objective case, governed by the transitive 
verb must love. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

John could study his lesson. 
could study . is a transitive verb (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 
potential mood, because it expresses a duty of studying (it 
does not indicate certainly that John did study, and therefore 
is not in the indicative mood) ; it is in the past tense, because 
it may denote a time past (that is, John could study his lesson 
yesterday) ; it agrees with its nominative, John. 
Examples. — John must compel William to study. Henry would write 
a copy. Charles can mend a pen. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

121. The imperative mood commands, entreats, or directs ; 
as, he silent ; help me ; take that course. 

This mood is expressed with the simple form of the verb, without any 
change. There is but one tense (the present), as we can command, en- 
treat, exhort and direct, only in the present tense ; and it is always in the 
second person, as you can direct only those addressed. 

Singular. Plural 

Love, or love thou, or do thou love. Love, or love you, or do you love. 

The nominative case is seldom expressed. 

PARSING. 

Love your neighbor. 

Love is a transitive verb (?), second person, plural number, impe- 
rative mood, because it commands; present tense, because of 
the present time ; and agrees with you, not expressed in the 
sentence (as, do you love your neighbor.) 

your is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, pos- 
sessive case (standing for the person addressed or commanded 
to love), and is governed by neighbor. 

neighbor ... is a noun (?), third person (?), singular number (?), common 
gender, objective case, and governed by the transitive verb 
love. 

Examples. — Fear God. Keep his commandments. 

Of Participles as Parts of Verbs, 

122. The scholar will already have perceived that the verb 
undergoes many changes in order to express variety of time and 
manner ; and he will in the course of the conjugation find these 
changes multiplied. At present, it is necessary to know some- 
thing of that result of a simple verb which is called a participle^ 
because it participates in the nature of a verb and an adjective. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

123. Two simple forms of participles result from every verb. 
One is called a present or active participle, as denoting a con- 
tinuance of acting or being, and is always formed by adding ing 
to the root of the verb, generally omitting the final e in the root, 
if it has any. For example, love makes loving as a present 
participle ; he has being ; teach has teaching ; write, writing. 

Perfect Participle, 

124. The other form of participle is called the past or perfect 
participle. This participle is used to form some of the tenses of 
the verb, and, in most of the verbs of the language, is formed 
by adding ed to the root of the verb, omitting the final e, if there 
should be one. For example, the verb love has loved for its 
perfect participle ; and the verb sound has sounded for its per- 
fect participle. 

OF THE COMPOUND TENSES. 

125. There are three dependent tenses of the verb, called 
anterior tenses^ viz., present anterior, past anterior, and future 
anterior. 

126. The anterior tenses express some action, or being, ante- 
riorly relative to some other time, expressed or understood in the 
sentence; thus, 

They had opened the mail when I arrived. 

They have written the letter now. 

When he shall have finished his work, he will pubhsh it. 

All anterior tenses are formed by adding certain signs to the perfect 
participle of the verb. Thus, the verb love forms the perfect participle 
laved; and when have is applied to that participle, the two words make a 
verb in the anterior tense. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Anterior {or Perfect) Tense, 
This tense expresses time anteriorly relative to some present 
time, expressed or understood in the sentence. 

The perfect participle is loved, and the sign of this tense is have, which 
must be applied to the perfect participle, have loved. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Nominative Case. Verb. 

First person . . . . I have loved 

Second person .... thou hast loved 

Third person .... he or she . . . has loved 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

Nominative Case. Verb. 

First person .... we have loved 

Second person .... ye or you . . . have loved 
Third person .... they have loved 

PARSING, 

John has destroyed the book. 
John ..... is a noun proper (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 
masculine gender (?), nominative case (?) to the verb has 
destroyed, 
has destroyed is HYerh, third person, singular number, in the indicative 
mood (because it indicates positive action) ; in the present 
anterior (or perfect) tense ; it is anteriorly relative to the time 
in which the person is speaking. 
What would the verb be, if it were in the plural number? 
What would it be if it were in the second person, instead of the third 
person singular ? 

Examples. — The books have received the dust. Thou hast obeyed the 
teacher. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Past Anterior (or Pluperfect) Tense. 

This tense expresses time anteriorly relative to some past 

time, expressed or understood in the sentence. 

This tense is formed by adding had to the perfect participle of the verb. 
Loved is the perfect participle of the verb love; the past anterior tense is 
then Jiad loved. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Nominative Case. Verb. 

First person .... I had loved 

Second person .... thou hadst loved 

Third person .... he, she or it . . had loved 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

Nominative Case. Verb. 

First person .... we had loved 

Second person .... ye or you .... had loved 

Third person .... they had loved 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

PARSING. 

The bishop had finished his usefulness when he died. 

The is a definite article, limiting hisJwp. 

bishop is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 

masculine gender (?), and nominative case to the verb had 



had finished is a transitive verb; (it is a verb, because it is declared of 
bishop; it is transitive, because it passes in its signification 
from bishop to usefulness;) it is in the third person, singular 
number (?), indicative mood, past anterior tense; it denotes 
an action completed before the time expressed by the word 
died. 

his is a personal pronoun (for bishop) ; it is in the third person, 

singular number, masculine gender, possessive case, and is 
governed by usefulness. 

usefulness . is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 
objective case, governed by had finished. 

when is an adverb of time, [k 

he is a personal pronoun (for bishop) ^ third person (?), singular 

number (?), masculine gender (?), nominative case to the verb 



died is a verb intransitive (because we do not say he died any- 
thing) ; it does not pass on to any object ; it is in the indica- 
tive mood, because it simply indicates the action, without 
expressing _poiyer or duty; it is in the past tense, and denotes 
the time to which the verb had finished relates, and from 
which it derives its tense; it is consequently the word to 
which had finished is anteriorly relative. 

Thou hadst received monitions when thou erredst. 
When you wrote the letter, you had heard the news. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Future Anterior (or Second Future) Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing shall have, or will have, to 
the perfect participle. The perfect participle of the verb love is 
loved ; the future anterior tense then is, shall have loved, or will 
have loved. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 
Nominative Case. Verb. Verb. 

First person . . I . . . . shall have loved 

Second person . . thou wilt have loved 

Third person . . he or she will have loved 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PLURAL NUM B ER. 
Nominative Case. Verb. Verb. 

First person . . we . . . shall have loved 

Second person . . ye or you will have loved 

Third person . . they will have loved 

PARSING. 

The man will have completed the work when death shall call. 

The is a definite article, limiting man. 

man is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular num- 
ber (?), masculine gender (?), nominative case to the 
verb will have completed. 

will have completed is a verb (?) transitive, because it passes from ma7i to 
work; third person, singular number (?), indicative 
mood, future anterior tense (that is, this verb denotes 
an action completed, before the action represented by 
the verb shall call; it is anteriorly relative to shall call), 
and agrees with man. 

the is a definite article, and belongs to work. 

work is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular num- 
ber (?), neuter gender, in the objective case (?) ; it is 
governed by will have completed. 

when is an adverb, [k 

death is a noun proper, third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender (?), nominative case to shall call. 

shall call is a verb intransitive, because it does not say that 

death shall call any person or object ; it is in the indi- 
cative mood (i), future tense, and is the independent 
tense upon which the verb will have completed depends 
for its time ; it agrees with death, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The infinitive mood has a perfect or anterior tense formed by 
prefixing to have to the perfect participle of the verb. The per- 
feet participle of the verb love is loved; the anterior tense of the 
infinitive is, then, to have loved. 

Of Verbs Regular* and Irregular. 
127. Verbs are regular when the past tense and perfect par- 
ticiple terminate in ed. [See Participle.] 

EXAMPLES. 
Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I love .... I loved .... I am, or have loved 

I correct ... I corrected ... I am, or have corrected. 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

128. When the past tense and perfect participle of a verb do 
not terminate in edy the verb is irregular : 

Present Past. Participle. 

I see I saw .... I am, or have, seen. 

129. Those irregular verbs which are in common use in our language, 
are comprised in the following list. 

In some, the past tense — in some, the participle — and, in others, botli 
of these, may also be used in the regular form; to indicate which, they 
are followed by an r. 

Many of these verbs are often employed with a prefix ; as, rise, arise ; 
tell,/(3retell; and in this case, with the exception of behave and welcome, 
they are conjugated in the same manner as in their simple form. 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Abide abode abode 

Am was been 

Awake awoke, b awaked 

Bear (to bring forth), .bore born 

Bear (to carry) bore borne 

Beat beat beaten, beat 

Begin began begun 

Bend bend, r bent 

Bereave bereft, r bereft, r. 

Beseech besought besought 

Bid bid, bade bidden, bid 

Bind bound -. bound 

Bite bit bitten, bit 

Bleed bled bled 

Blow blew blown 

Break broke broken 

Breed bred bred 

Bring brought brought 

Build built, r built 

Burn burnt, R burnt, r. 

Burst burst burst 

Buy bought bought 

Cast cast cast 

Catch caught, r caught, r. 

Chide chid chidden, chid 

Choose chose chosen 

Cleave (to adhere) cleaved cleaved 

Cleave (to split) clove, cleft cloven 

Cling clung clung 

Clothe clad, r clad, r. 

Come came come 

Cost cost cost 

Creep crept crept 

Crow crew, r crowed 

F 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present Past. Perfect Participle. 

Cut but cut 

Dare .durst dared 

Deal dealt, r .dealt, r. 

Dig dug, K dug, B. 

Do did , . . . done 

Draw drew drawn 

Dream dreamt, r dreamt, r. 

Drink drank drunk, drank 

Drive drove driven 

Dwell dwelt, r dwelt, r. 

Eat ate, eat eaten 

Fall fell fallen 

Feed fed fed 

Feel felt felt 

Fight fought fought 

Find found found 

Flee fled fled 

Fling .flung flung 

Fly flew flown 

Forsake forsook forsaken 

Freeze froze frozen 

Freight freighted fraught, r. 

Get got got, gotten 

Gild gilt, R. gilt, B. 

Gird girt, r girt, r. 

Give gave given 

Go went .gone 

Grave graved graven, r. 

Grind ground ground 

Grow grew grown 

Hang hung hung 

Have had had 

Hear heard heard 

Heave hove, r. hoven, r. 

Hew hewed hewn, r. 

Hide hid hidden, hid 

Hit hit hit 

Hold held held 

Hurt. hurt hurt 

Keep kept .kept 

Kneel knelt, r , knelt, r. 

Knit knit, r knit, r. 

Know knew known 

Lade laded laden 

Lay laid laid 

Lead led led 

Leave left left 

Lend lent lent 

Let let. let 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Lie (to recline) lay lain 

Light lit, B lit, R. 

Load loaded laden, a. 

Lose lost . . , lost 

Make made made 

Mean meant meant 

Meet met met 

Mow mowed mown, h. 

Pay paid paid 

Pen (to enclose) . . . .pent, r pent, r. 

Put put put 

Quit quit, r quit, r. 

Read read read 

Rend rent rent 

Rid rid rid 

Ride rode ridden 

Ring rang, rung rung 

Rise rose risen 

Rive rived riven 

Run ran run 

Saw sawed sawn, r. 

Say said said 

See saw seen 

Seek sought sought 

Seethe sod, r sodden, b. 

Sell sold sold 

Send send sent 

Set set set 

Sit sat sat 

Shake shook shaken 

Shape shaped shapen, h. 

Shave shaved shaven, r. 

Shear sheared , shorn, r. 

Shed shed shed 

Shine shone shone 

Shoe shod shod 

Shoot shot shot 

Show showed shown 

Shred ...,., shred shred 

Shrink shrunk, shrank shrunk 

Shut shut shut 

Sing sang, sung sung 

Sink sunk, sank sunk 

Slay slew slain , 

Sleep slept slept 

Slide slid slidden, slid 

Sling slung slung 

SUnk slunk slunk 

Slit slit, R , slit, R, 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Smite smote smitten, smit 

Sow (to scatter) . . . .sowed sown, r. 

Speak spoke spoken 

Speed sped sped 

Spell spelt, B spelt, r. 

Spend spent spent 

Spill spilt, B spilt, B. 

Spin spun spun 

Spit spit spit 

Split split split 

Spread spread spread 

Spring sprang, sprung sprung 

Stand stood stood 

Steal stole stolen 

Stick stuck stuck 

Sting stung .stung 

Stride strode, strid stridden 

Strike struck struck, stricken 

String .strung strung 

Strive strove striven 

Strow or strew strowed or strewed strown, strewn, b. 

Swear swore sworn 

Sweat sweat, b sweat, b. 

Sweep swept swept 

Swell swelled swollen, b. 

Swim . . , swam, swum swum 

Swing swung swung 

Take took taken 

Teach taught taught 

Tear tore torn 

Tell told told 

Think thought thought 

Thrive throve thriven 

Throw threw thrown 

Thrust thrust . . thrust 

Tread trod trodden, trod 

Wax waxed waxen, r. 

Wear wore worn 

Weave wove woven, wove 

Weep wept wept 

Wet wet, B wet, b. 

Whet whet, b whet, b. 

Win won won 

Wind wound wound 

Work wrought, b wrought, b. 

Wring wrung wrung 

Write wrote written 

130. Defective verbs are those which are not used in all the moods and 
tenses : of this kind are ought y wist, trow, and quoth. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

131. Quoth is used only in the first and third person, in the past tense ; 
as, ^' quoth I," **I will, quoth John." Quoth invariably precedes its 
nominative. 

132. Ought is used only in the present and past tenses. It is invariably 
followed by a verb in the infinitive mood. 

133. li ought is in the present tense, the infinitive verb should also be 
present ; but, ii ought is in the past tense, the infinitive verb should be in 
the anterior tense ; as, " He ought to learn now what he ought not to have 
neglected before." 

134. Verbs that are used only in one person are called impersonal (or 
unpersonal) verbs. They are such verbs as rain or snow; it rains, it 
snows, it hails, it behoves. 

PARSING. 

I have loved as he ought to love. 

/ is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case to the verb have loved. 

have loved . . is a regular intransitive verb, first person, singular number, 
indicative mood ; (this verb expresses an action past, yet 
having a distinct relation to the time present with the person 
using it ;) it is in the present anterior tense, and agrees with 
its nominative, 1. 

as is an adverb of manner, qualifying has loved, and connecting 

the two parts of this sentence. 

he is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, in the 

nominative case to ought. 

ought is a defective verb {defective, because it can not be conjugated 

through all the moods and tenses). [130-133.] 

to love .... is a verb in the infinitive mood, present tense. 

EXAMPLES. 

I have written them as he ought to have written them. 
Moses left laws for us, which we ought to follow. 
I have acted as a man ought to act, quoth Ralph. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

135. Auxiliary verbs are words used in the formation of cer- 
tain moods and tenses of the verb. They form no distinct idea, 
but are taken as a part of the verb which they are designed to 
assist. 

136. The words which enter into the composition of the potential mood, 
may, can, must, might, could, would, and should, are never used for any 
other purpose than that prescribed to them in this mood. The same may 
also be said of shall in the indicative. 

5 F2 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

137. Have, will, and do, are sometimes principal verbs. When used as 
auxiliaries, their meaning is not similar to that of the principal verb. They 
will be explained in the conjugation. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 

138. The regular combination of number, person, mood and 
tense, in the verb, is called conjugation. 

Conjugation of the verbs Love and Write, 

Before the verb is conjugated, scholars should form the present and past 
tenses of the indicative mood (first person singular), and the perfect parti- 
ciple, in order to ascertain whether it is regular or irregular. 

-P^e^^^^^- Past. Participle. 

(I) love, or write . . (I) loved, or wrote . . Loved, or written. 

As the past tense and perfect participle of love ends in ed, it is regular. 
Write, on the contrary, is irregular. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

139. The present tense denotes r present or general action 
or being. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person . . I love or write 

Second person . . thou lovest or writest 

Third person . . he, she or it . . . loves or writes 

In solemn style, or poetry. He, she or it loveth or writeth. This change 
on account of style is only in the present and present anterior tenses of the 
indicative mood. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . we love or write 

Second person . . you love or write 

Third person . . they love or write. 

140. The plural number has no change on account of style. The plural 
number of all verbs (be, excepted) is exactly like the first person singular, 
in the same mood and tense ; thus, I love-— We love. 

141. All nouns in the nominative require their verb to agree with them 
in the third person. 

142. By a perversion of language, the pronoun you is almost invariably 
used for the second person singular, as well as plural ; always, however, 
retaining the plural verb ; as, "My friend, you write a good hand." Thou 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

is confined to a solemn style, or poetical compositions. It is sometimes 
used as a term of contempt. 

143. This tense is sometimes conjugated with the verb do^ either to 
express emphasis or negation : 

Singular. Plural. 

I do love We do love 

Thou dost love You do love 

He does love They do love 

In solemn style (in the singular number), He, she, or it doth love, or doth 
write. 

The auxiliary verb do differs in meaning from the principal verb do^ 
and is differently conjugated. For example : The auxiliary verb in the 
second person singular is, Thou dost (love) ; while the principal verb in 
that number and person is. Thou doest. In the third person, He doth 
(love) ; while the principal verb is, He doeth. 

Past {or Imperfect) Tense, 

144. The past tense denotes an action, or being, indefinitely 
past, without any particular relation to present time. 

The actual or relative time of the past tense, is usually expressed by an 
adverb, or some part of a sentence ; as, ** He wrote the letter while 1 was 
there.''' 

SIN&ULAR NUMBER. 

First person, . . I loved or wrote 

Second person, . . thou .... lovedst or wrotest 
Third person, . . he, she, or it. . loved or wrote 

The learner can be at no loss for the first person singular of this tense, 
as he has already given it, in forming the participle, previously to the 
conjugation. 

P LURAL NUMBER. '^ 

First person . . we loved or wrote 

Second person . . you loved or wrote 

Third person . . they loved or wrote 

145. This tense is sometimes conjugated with the verb did, to express 
emphasis or negation; as. 

Singular. Plural. 

I did love We did love 

Thou didst love You did love 

He did love ..... They did love 



68 ENGLISH GRAM BIAR. 

Future (or First Future) Tense, 

146. The future tense gives notice of an event yet to take 
place. This tense of the verb is formed by the signs shall and 
will^ placed before the root of the verb ; thus, write — -I shall or 
will write. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person . . I . . , shall or will love or write 
Second person . . thou . . shalt or wilt love or write 
Third person . . he, she or it shall or will love or write 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . we . . shall or will love or write 
Second person . . you . . shall or will love or write 
Third person . . they . . shall or will love or write 

147. The auxiliaries shall and will are not indefinitely applied. They 
make different senses as they are differently used. In a declarative sen- 
tence they are thus used : Will, in the first person, is used to express 
resolution and promising ; as, ** We will put it off no longer ;" " We will 
give you a noble reward." In the second and third persons, it only fore- 
tels : ** They will enjoy that comfort to-morrow, for which you will sigh 
the next day." 

Will, as an auxiliary, differs from will as a principal verb. For example, 
in the second person singular, the auxiliary is wilt, and the principal verb 
would be wiliest. 

148. Shall, in the first person, foretels ; as, *' I shall begin to-morrow ;'* 
** We shall feel the consequence of our own restrictions." In the second 
and third persons, it promises or commands ; as, ** They shall find com- 
fort ;" ** Thou shalt not steal." 

149. Shall, in the first person, and will in the second and third persons, 
seem to denote events which necessarily arise out of some particular cause, 
or in the general course of events ; as, ** We shall be sick, and they will 
die." 

Present Anterior {or Perfect) Tense. 
150. The present anterior tense expresses action, or being, 
anteriorly relative to the present time. It represents an event 
as having taken place within a space of time, including the pre- 
sent ; as, " He has lived with me ten years." 

151. It is also used when the verb is connected with the present time 
by the existence of its agent or object; thus, "Solomon has given us 
better proverbs than Franklin has (given)." Both of these verbs are in 
the present anterior tense, because the proverbs of both Franklin and 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

Solomon are in existence. ''America has produced a man superior to any 
that ancient Greece ever produced." The former of these verbs is in the 
present anterior tense, because America still exists ; the latter is in the 
past tense, because ancient Greece is no more. 

152. The present anterior tense is formed by prefixing have 
to the perfect participle of the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 
Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Love loved ...... loved 

Write wrote written 

The present anterior then is, have loved, or have vn-itten. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person . . . I . . . have loved or written 
Second person ... thou . . hast loved or written 
Third person . . . he . . . has loved or written 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . . we . . . have loved or written 
Second person . . . you . . . have loved or written 
Third person . . . they . . . have loved or written 

Past Anterior {or Pluperfect) Tense, 
153. This tense is anteriorly relative to the past tense. The 
past anterior tense expresses an event, terminated before some 
past time, expressed or understood in the same sentence. The 
event marked by the anterior tense must have an immediate 
relation to the past tense to which it is anterior. 







EXAMPLES. 






Past Anterior. 




Past. 


I 


had written 


the letter when he 


called on me. 


He 


had finished 


the work when he 


went home. 


He 


had been 


sick when you 


saw him. 



154. This tense is formed by prefixing had to the perfect 
participle of the verb — thus : 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

Love loved loved 

Write wrote written 

The past anterior tense then is, ''Had loved, or had written.'* 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person . . I . . . . had loved or written 
Second person . . thou . . . hadst loved or v^ritten 
Third person . . he . . . . had loved or vi^ritten 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . v^e . . . . had loved or written 
Second person . . you . . . had loved or written 
Third person . . they . . . had loved or written 

Future Anterior {or Second Future) Tense, 
155. This tense is anteriorly relative to a future time. The 
future anterior tense expresses a future event, which is to take 
place before some other future time, expressed or understood in 
the sentence ; as, " You will not arrive in season ; for the ser- 
mon toill have been commenced." 

156. This tense, perhaps, more than any other, is liable to be misused. 
It is frequently improperly used with a present tense ; as, '* He will have 
arrived when you come." This should be, "HemZZ arrive before you 
come." 

157. The future anterior is formed by prefixing shall have or 
will have to the perfect participle of the verb. 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Love loved loved 

Write wrote written 

The future anterior then is, shall have or will have loved or written. 
158. Will is rarely used with the first person, and shall is rarely used 
with the second and third persons. 







SINGULAR 


NUMBER. 


First 

Second 

Third 


person 
person 
person 


. I . . . 

. . thou . . 
. he. . . 


. shall have loved or written 
. wilt have loved or written 
. will have loved or written 






PLURAL 


NUMB ER. 


First 

Second 

Third 


person 
person 
person , 


. we . . 
. you . . 
. they . . 


. shall have loved or written 
. will have loved or written 
. will have loved or written 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

159. The imperative mood is used to entreat, exhort, and 
direct. These different meanings are not expressed by any 
change in the form of the verb, but by a change of voice. As 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

the action which is expressed by this mood is to proceed from 
the person spoken to, it follows, of course, that the verb in the 
imperative mood is always in the second person and present 
tense. This mood, in both persons, is only the root of the 
verb. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

Love or write Love or write. 

Or, with the nominative case expressed, 

Singular Number. 

Love thou, or do thou love ; or, Write thou, or do thou write. 

Plural Number. 
Love you, or do you love ; or. Write you, or do you write. 
This verb or its auxiliary do always precedes its nominative case. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

160. This mood is always formed, in its present and past 
tenses, by prefixing one of the following words to the root of the 
verb : may, can, must, might, could, would, should ; thus. He 
mai/ love ; You can write. 

The potential mood has four tenses, viz., present, past, present anterior 
and past anterior. 

Present Tense. 

161. This tense is formed by prefixing mat/, can or must to 
the root of the verb ; as, I mat/ love ; He can write. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person . . I ... may, can or must love or write 
Second person . . thou . . mayst, canst or must love or write 
Third person . . he . . . may, can or must love or write 

PLURS^L NUMBER. 

First person . . we . . . . may, can or must love or write 
Second person . . you .... may, can or must love or write 
Third person . . they .... may, can or must love or wTite 

Past Tense. 

162. This tense is formed by prefixing might, could, would 
or should to the root of the verb ; thus, love or write. " I could 
love ;" " He would write." 



/2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person, I might, could, would or should love or write 
Second person, thou mightest, couldst, wouldst or shouldst love or write 
Third person, he might, could, would or should love or write. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person, we might, could, would or should love or write 
Second person, you might, could, would or should love or write 
Third person, they might, could, would or should love or writ© 

Present Anterior (or Perfect) Tense, 

163. This tense is formed by prefixing may^ can^ must (pre- 
sent signs) and have^ to the perfect participle from the verb. 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Love loved loved 

Write wrote written 

The present anterior tense then is, "I may have loved ;" ** Thou mayst 
have written," &c. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person, I may, can or must have loved or written 
Second person, thou mayst, canst or must have loved or written 
Third person, he may, can or must have loved or written. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person, we may, can or must have loved or written 
Second person, you may, can or must have loved or written 
Third person, they may, can or must have loved or written 

Past Anterior {or Pluperfect) Tense, 

164. This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries or signs 
of the past tense, might, could, would or should^ and have^ to 
the perfect participle of the verb, thus : 

Present. Past. Perfect Participle. 

Love ...... loved loved 

Write wrote written 

The past anterior tense is then, ^^ Could have loved," or ^^ Would have 
written," &c. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Istpers. I might, could, would or should have loved or written 
2d pers. thou mightest, couldst, w^ouldst or shouldst have loved or written 
3d pers. he might, could, would or should have loved or written 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

1st person, we might, could, would or should have loved or written 
2d person, you might, could, would or should have loved or written 
3d person, they might, could, would or should have loved or written 

SUBJUNCTIVE OR CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

165. This mood is only the indicative or potential mood, with 
the word if placed before the nominative case ; as, " I love" is 
indicative — ^'If I love," is subjunctive. 

166. The following conjugation of the present tense is not a change of 
the indicative, but it is an ellipsis of the sign should^ which is understood 
before the verb. 

If I love or write .... If I should love or write 

If thou love or write .... If thou shouldst love or write 

If he love or write .... If he should love or write 

The omission of the sign should is often occasioned by the use of though 

and unless; as, ^^ Though he write a good hand;" that is, '''Though h© 

should write a good hand." 

In the second and third persons, future anterior (or second future) tense, 
the auxiliaries are diiferently applied in this tense, thus : 

Indicative. Subjunctive, 

Thou wilt have written If thou shalt have written 

He will have written If he shall have written. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

167. This mood of the verb is known by the sign to. 

Present Tense, 

168. This tense is formed by prefixing the sign, to^ to the 
verb; thus, jTo love — Tb write. 

Anterior [or Perfect) Tense, 

169. This tense is formed by prefixing to have to the parti- 
ciple ; thus, To have loved ; or, To have written. 

170. The present tense of the infinitive mood, as well as the anterior, 
expresses relative time. The present tense, however, expresses a poste- 
rior, and the anterior tense expresses an anterior time. Both tenses may 
be used with verbs of the past tense ; and the present tense of the infini- 
tive likewise accompanies the present and future tenses ; thus, He hoped 
to acquire that knowledge in age, which he ought not to have neglected in 
youth. 

G 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARSING. 

He writes in a richer and more elegant style. 

He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, nominative case to the verb writes. 

writes is an irregular intransitive verb, third person, singular num- 
ber, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with he. 

in is a preposition, governing style. 

a is an indefinite article, limiting style. 

richer is an adjective in the comparative degree, qualifying the noun 

style. 

mid is a conjunction copulative, connecting richer and elegant. 

more is an adverb, qualifying elegant. 

elegant .... is an adjective, in the comparative degree, qualifying style. 
[89.] 

style is a noun common (?), third person (?), singular number (?), 

neuter gender (?), objective case, and is governed by the pre- 
position in. 

He will leave the house at noon, when he will have written his address. 

He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 

masculine gender, nominative case to the verb will 
leave. 

will leave is an irregular transitive verb, third person, singular 

number, indicative mood, future tense, and agrees 
with he. 

the is a definite article, limiting house. 

house is a noun common, third person, singular number, neu- 
ter gender, objective case, and governed by the tran- 
sitive verb will leave. 

at is a preposition, governing noon. 

noon is a noun common, third person, singular number, 

objective case, governed by the preposition at. 

when is an adverb of time, qualifying will have written. 

he is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 

masculine gender, nominative case to the verb will have 
written. 

will have written . is an irregular transitive verb, third person, singular 
number, indicative mood ; (this verb expresses a future 
action to be performed, before the future time declared 
by will leave, yet in a distinct relation to it ;) therefore 
it is in the future anterior tense, and agrees with its 
nominative, he. 

his is a possessive pronoun, third person, singular number, 

masculine gender, possessive case, and governed hy 
address. 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

address is a noun common, third person, singular number, 

neuter gender, objective case, and governed by the 
verb will have written. 
He will awake in a better and more happy estate ; yet he will not be sur- 
prised, because he will have been inspired with higher hopes and more 
holy desires. 

OF THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB "BE." 

171. The verb Be is one of so much importance in the con- 
struction of a sentence, that it is deemed proper to conjugate it 
at large. Be is denominated a substantive verb. 

Conjugation of the Substantive Verb "^e." 

Present tense of the indicative mood, first person singular, , . . am 

Past tense of the indicative mood, first person singular, .... was 

Perfect participle, been. 

[See table of irregular verbs.] 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

First person ... I am .... we are 

Second person . . . thou art ... . you are 

Third person ... he is they are. 

There is no change, in this tense of the verb he, on account of the 
solemn style. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person ... I was .... we were 
Second person . . . thou wast .... you were 
Third person ... he was .... they were 

Future Tense. 

Will or Shall to the Verb. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person . . I will or shall be ... we will or shall be 
Second person . . thou wilt or shalt be . . . you will or shall be 
Third person . . he will or shall be . . . they will or shall be 

Present Anterior Tense. 
Have, to the Participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person .... I have been we have been 

Second person .... thou hast been you have been 

Third person .... he has been they have been 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Anterior Tense, 

Had, to the Participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person .... I had been we had been 

Second person .... thou hadst been you had been 

Third person .... he had been they had been 

Future Anterior Tense, 

Shall have and will have, to the Participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person . . I shall have been ... we shall have been 
Second person . . thou wilt have been . . . you will have been 
Third person . . he will have been . . . they will have been 

Potential Mood, Present Tense, 

Signs, can, must and may, to the Verb. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person ... I can be .... we can be 
Second person . . . thou canst be ... . you can be 
Third person ... he can be ... . they can be 

Past Tense, 
Signs, might, could, would, should, to the Verb. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person . . I would be ... we would be 
Second person . . thou wouldst be . . . you would be 
Third person . . he would be . . . they would be 

Present Anterior Tense, 

Present signs and have, to the Participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person . . I may have been . . we may have been 
Second person . . thou mayst have been . . you may have been 
Third person . . he may have been . . they may have been 

Past Anterior Tense, 

Past signs to the perfect Participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person . I should have been . . we should have been 
Second person . thou shouldst have been . . you should have been 
Third person . he should have been . . they should have been 

Imperative Mood, 
Be, or be thou Be, or be you. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

Subjunctive Mood. 

The subjunctive mood, it has already been observed, is only the indica- 
tive and potential moods, made conditional by the application of if. [See 
also observations on the potential and subjunctive moods, page 73.] 

Hypothetical Form. 

172. There is a hypothetical form of the verb in use, derived chiefly 
from the poets, and approved of by many grammarians, v^hich it may be 
well to give here, though it is not intended to sanction its use. It is to 
take the plural number of this verb in the past tense of the indicative 
mood, to express some hypothesis, even of the present time. For ex- 
ample : 

** If I were a king (which I am not), I would rule justly." 
** I am not well ; but if I were, I would go." 

Infinitive Mood, Present Tense. 

To, to the Verb. 
To be. 

Anterior Tense. 

To have, to the Perfect Participle, 
To have been. 

When the scholar has become acquainted with the manner of forming 
the perfect participle, and has committed to memory the signs of the 
tenses, nothing can be easier than the conjugation of a verb. 

SHORT CONJUGATION. 

173. The perfect participle from the irregular verb ride is 
thus formed : 

Presmt. Past. Participle. 

Ride rode ridden. 

The present, past and future tenses are formed by prefixing their signs 
to the present form, or root, of the verb. 

The present and past tenses of the indicative mood take the auxiliaries 
do and did. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. 

Indicative mood . . do . . . did . . will ) Ride, or the root 
Potential mood . . can . . . could . . . [ of any other verb 

Infinitive mood . . to J than 6e. 

The imperative mood is very rarely conjugated with do. 

174. The anterior tenses are formed by prefixing their signs 
to the perfect participle. 

G2 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present Anterior. Fast Anterior. Future Anterior. 
Indicative mood, . have . . . had . . . will have J Ridden, or the 
Potential mood, . can have . could have ... I perfect participle 
Infinitive mood, . to have ) oi any verb. 

175. This exhibits a very comprehensive view of the conjugation of a 
verb, with fewer deficiencies than may at first sight appear. It will 
be recollected that, excepting he, the plural number of the verb, in its 
three persons, is like the first person singular of the same tense. When 
the indicative mood is not to be conjugated with do and did, the present 
and past tenses are expressed in forming the participle. The changes on 
account of the second and third persons, in the singular number, remain 
to be supplied. 

Observations on the Potential and Subjunctive Moods, 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The tenses of this mood are not so distinctly marked as are those of the 
indicative mood, because the same words express different time as they 
are variously used ; thus, *' He told ^le (yesterday) that he would perform 
the task during the day." Both of the verbs, told and would perform, are 
in past time, though would perform is certainly posterior to told. Again: 
^^Iwish that you would read.''^ Here, wish is present, and would read 
denotes a time posterior. The same remarks apply to should (unless used 
instead oi ought), and all of the signs, which are laid down as auxiliaries 
of the past tense. 

As the past anterior (or pluperfect) tense is formed from the past (or 
imperfect) auxiliaries, it of course partakes of its anomalous quality; that 
is, the past tense of the potential mood expresses a relative posterior time, 
and the past anterior tense expresses a relative anterior time ; thus, *'I 
thought he would do so ;" "I thought he would have done it." 

The past and past anterior tenses of this mood are never used to express 
positive time ; but they are invariably connected with some other verb 
(indicative or subjunctive) which expresses the time to which the verb in 
the potential mood is relative ; thus, " I might hold an office (if I wished 
to);" " He told me that 1 might examine the library;" ^^ I should have 
seen the whole if my father had not prevented.''^ As the signs of the past 
tense are almost invariably used when the verbs to which they belong are 
connected with some other verb, and they consequently express only rela- 
tive time, there seems almost a sufficient reason for forming a conjunctive 
mood, the present tense of which should be conjugated with the usual 
past tense signs of the potential mood, and the past tense, by the past 
anterior or pluperfect signs. This would afford an opportunity for reducing 
the present anterior (or perfect) tense of the potential mood to a past tense, 
which is, in general, the real time it represents. 

We have, in our conjugation of the verb, followed, as near as possible, 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

the usual method of conjugation, not venturing upon the improvement 
which we believe the nature of the language will warrant. 

The learner w4io is capable of comprehending the nice distinctions of 
language, will find in these observations, and in the following, on the 
subjunctive mood, the just value of the verb, and will, undoubtedly, be 
able to apply its several parts with grammatical accuracy, when he shall 
have sufficiently examined and digested these remarks. 

With these observations upon the value of the potential signs, in regard 
to time, we proceed to the consideration of what is usually called the 
subjunctive mood, in which the potential signs are almost constantly in 
use. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The subjunctive mood, as has been previously stated, expresses the 
condition of an event. It, however, expresses the condition in two ways, 
viz., a simple condition, where the fact asserted by the subjunctive verb 
is probable, or where it is of so little doubt as to require some certain con- 
sequence; as, ''If he plays as well as is reported of him, he will certainly 
be patronized:" or, in the future tense, "If he will play, to-morrow eve- 
ning, as well as he played last evening, he will certainly be patronized.'' 
*'If he caiiplay as well as is reported, he may certainly 'expect patron- 
age." In these sentences, the promise of patronage is predicated on the 
simple condition of performing, or being able to perform, a particular act. 
In these examples, it will be noticed that the time of the subjunctive verb 
is exactly the same that it would be were the verbs indicative or potential ; 
i. e., plays and can play are in the present tense, and will play in the future 
tense, of the subjunctive mood ; and they would represent the same time, 
were they indicative or potential. 

It has been already observed (see conjugation of the verb he) that when 
ever the verb he, in the present or past tense of the indicative mood, is 
followed by a verb in the infinitive mood (present tense), a future time is 
implied. 

The next form of the subjunctive mood supposes the condition of an 
event; as, "My father is not now sick; but if he were,yom services 
would be welcome;" " This man Joes ?ioi ^Zay upon the harp ; and though 
he did play, he would not be likely to gratify us." In these two examples 
of the second kind of subjunctive mood, we do not find the order of tense 
so closely adhered to as in those of the first kind. In the first example, 
the two verbs, is and were, are used to express the same time ; yet were is 
a verb of the past tense, when in the indicative mood. In the second 
example, does play, a verb of the present tense, is used to represent the 
same time that did play does ; and did play, when indicative, is of the past ^ 
tense ; yet no confusion can result from such a use of the tenses, because 
it is a rule, arising out of use, that when the subjunctive mood is merely 
a supposition, or is hypothetical, the word or words of which it is com- 
posed represent a time one degree in advance of that which they represent 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in the indicative or potential mood ; thus, *' I can not love ; but, if I could 
love, I would;" "I have not written; but, if I had written, I would 
send :" *' He will not go ; but, if he would go, I would send him." 

Thus, it appears that in every use of the subjunctive mood, in its hypo- 
thetical form, its time is one tense in advance of that which would be 
represented if the verb were indicative or potential. It will also be ob- 
served, and may be considered as a rule of language, that this form of the 
subjunctive mood is invariably accompanied by the conjunctive form of the 
potential mood, representing the relative time which has already been 
spoken of under that head. 

It may be well to remark, in this place, that the use of the past tense 
of the verb, to express present time, obtains also in the subjunctive mood ; 
as, '' I wish that I were well." Were, though the past tense of the indi- 
cative mood, expresses the present of the hypothetical. 

The use of this hypothetical form of the subjunctive mood, has given 
rise to a form of expression which is not warranted by the analogies of our 
language. In the present tense singular, in this form of the subjunctive 
mood, most writers and speakers use were, instead oiwas; as, '* Were 1 
in possession of the requisite information;" " If thou wert acquainted 
with him ;" *' If he were compelled to do it." Many of the best gram- 
mars of the language recognise this form ; but, though it is the duty of 
the writer of a school grammar to teach the learner how the language is 
used, and not to contend with custom, yet he may be permitted to express 
a regret that such a form should be sanctioned. 

Of the Voice of a Verb. 

176. The voice of a verb is the distinction made between 
doing and receiving. 

177. Transitive verbs are active, as they represent the object of their 
agent* or nominative case, as affecting some other object; thus, "John 
strikes William." Strikes, in this sentence, denotes an action passmg 
from one object (John) to another object (William), and is a transitive verb. 
But as that same verb may be used in another form, to express another 
idea, it is said to be in the active voice. 

178. The active voice of the verb shows the actor to be the 
subject of conversation; and it is in the nominative case. 

The verbs that have been conjugated, with the exception of the verb 
he, are in the active voice. 

Passive Voice. 

179. The passive voice is used when the person receiving the 
action represented by the verb is the subject of conversation: 
thus, '' William is struck by John." 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

The nominative case to the verb in the active voice, becomes the objective 
case, governed by the preposition 6y, v^^hen used with the same verb in the 
passive voice. For example : 

Active Voice. 
Charles reads the book. 

Passive Voice. 
The book is read by Charles. 

Active Voice. 
Washington defended the nation. 

Passive Voice. 
The nation was defended by Washington. 

Active Voice. 
The man should have v^^ritten the letter. 

Passive Voice. 
The letter should have been written by the man. 

180. As a verb in the passive voice expresses the effect upon some 
objective case, it follows that intransitive verbs, which have no objective 
case, cannot have a passive voice. We may say, " Charles sleeps ;" but 
we cannot say, " Charles is slept.'''' 

181. Use has sanctioned the construction of some passive voices from 
verbs not in themselves transitive ; for example, "I speak of the rule." 
Here, the verb spealt is intransitive, and the word rule is in the objective 
case, governed by the preposition of. 

But custom sanctions the formation of a passive voice from the verb 
speak, as follows : 

The rule is spoken of. 

Passive. 
I listened to her music. Her music was listened to. 

The verb listened, in the sentence, ''I listened to her," is not to be 
considered as a compound verb. 

In the examples of the passive voice, *' is spoken of," and ** was listened 
to,'" the words of and to may be considered as parts of the verb. 

Conjugation of the Passive Voice. 

182. The verb in the passive voice is conjugated by affixing 
the perfect participle from the active verb to the verb be, in aU 
its moods and tenses. 



Present. 

Love . . 


THE VERB LOVE. 
Past 

.... loved . , . . 


Perfect Participle 
. . loved 



The perfect participle from the verb love is loved 
6 



82 ENGLISHGRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLE. 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

I loved William. William is loved by me. 

Thou lovedst William. William is loved by thee. 

He loved William. William is loved by him. 

CONJUGATION 

Of the regiilar transitive verb *'Xove," and of the irregular transitive verb 
^^ Choose,^ ^ in the Passive Voice. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

Love loved loved 

Choose chose ...... chosen 

Rule— Perfect participles to the verb he. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. ^ 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person , . I am ... . loved or chosen 
Second person . . thou art .... loved or chosen 
Third person . . he is loved or chosen 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . we are loved or chosen 

Second person , . you are Wed or chosen 

Third person . . they are loved or chosen 

Past Tense. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person, . . I was .... loved or chosen 
Second person, . . thou wast .... loved or chosen 
Third person, . . he was .... loved or chosen 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . we were loved or chosen 

Second person . . you were loved or chosen 

Third person . . they were loved or chosen 

Future Tense. 

SINGULAR NUMBEIl. 

First person . . I shall be . . . loved or chosen 
Second person . . thou wilt be . . . loved or chosen 
Third person . . he will be . . . loved or chosen 



ETYMOLOGY. 



83 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



PLUR AL NUMBER. 

we shall be . . . loved or chosen 

you will be . . . loved or chosen 

they will be . . . loved or chosen 



Present Perfect Tense, 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



SINGULAR NUMBER. 

. I have been . . loved 
. thou hast been . . loved 



he has been 



or chosen 
or chosen 



loved or chosen 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

. we have been . . . 

, you have been . . . 

they have been . . . 



loved or chosen 
loved or chosen 
loved or chosen 



First 

Second person 

Third person 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



Past Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

person . . I had been . . . loved or 



thou hadst been . 
he had been . 



loved 
loved 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

. we had been . . . loved 



you had been . 
they had been . 



loved 
loved 



chosen 
or chosen 
or chosen 



or chosen 
or chosen 
or chosen 



loved or chosen 
loved or chosen 
loved or chosen 



Future Perfect Tense, 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person . . I shall have been . . 
Second person . . thou wilt have been . . 
Third person . . he will have been . . 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . we shall have been .... loved or chosen 
Second person . . you will have been .... loved or chosen 
Third person . . they will have been .... loved or chosen 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pre$., To be loved or chosen. Fres. Ferf., To have been loved or chosen. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be, or be thoiJ loved or chosen. Be, or be you loved or ohosen. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect^ Being loved or chosen. 

Perfect^ Loved or chosen, Having been loved or chosen. 

Synopsis of " To be Loved,'''' 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I am loved. Present Perfect^ I have been loved. 

Past, I was loved. Past Perfect, I had been loved. 

Future, I shall be loved. Future Perfect, I shall have been loved, 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be loved, or Be thou or you loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being loved. Perfect, Loved, Having been loved. 

Of the Indefinite and Definite Forms of the Verb, 

183. There are two forms of verbs; one indefinite, and the 
other definite. 

184. The indefinite form does not always express the time of 
action so precisely as would be expected from the name of the 
tense in which it may be found. For example : 

*' Coaches run on the turnpike, and cars run on the rail-road.*' 
In this example, the verb run is in the present tense ; but it is not the 
intention, perhaps, to assert that, at the moment of speaking, the coaches 
and cars are in motion ; only that, in general, when they do run at all, the 
coaches run on the turnpike, and the cars run on the rail-road. Hence, 
this form of using the verb is denominated the indefinite form. 

185. The definite form represents the act as occurring at the 
time mentioned. For example : 

** The coaches are running on the turnpike, and the cars are running on 

the rail-road." 
In the above sentence, it will be seen that the time when the action is 
talcing place, is defined; the te7ise is present, and the action represented is 
present. This form of the verb is, therefore, called the definite form. 

186. The following is an example of both forms of the same verb, in 
the same mood and tense : 

** The rector preaches in that church (generally) ; but, as he is absent, his 
friend is preaching for him (to-day)." 



ETYMOLOGY. 



85 



Indefinite Form. 

187. The indefinite form of the verb is that which has been 
conjugated — the verbs love and write. In parsing, it is not cus- 
tomary to mention the/brm, unless it should be definite. 

Definite Form, 

188. The definite form of the verb is made by annexing the 

present participle of the indefinite form to the verb he^ in all its 

moods and tenses. 

For example, the verb love has loving for its present participle ; and the 
verb write has writing for its present participle. The present tense of the 
indicative mood of both forms would then be as follows : 



Indefinite Form. 

I love, or I write. 

Thou lovest, or thou writest. 

He loves, or he writes. 



Definite Form. 

1 am loving, or I am writing. 
Thou art loving, or thou art writing. 
He is loving, or he is writing. 



CONJUGATION OF THE DEFINITE FORM, ACTIVE VOICE. 

[This is sometimes called the progressive form.] 
Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

First person ... I am . . . loving or writing 
Second person . . . thou art . . . loving or writing 
Third person ... he is ... . loving or writing 

PLURALNUMBER. 



First person . . 


, . we are . 


. . loving 


or writing 


Second person . . 


, . you are . , 


. . loving 


or writing 


Third person . . 


. . they are . , 


. . loving 


or writing 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



Past Tense, 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

. I wa3 . . . loving or writing 
. thou wast . . . loving or writing 
. he was . . . loving or writingj 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

. we were . , 

. you were . , 

. they were . . 
H 



loving or writing 
loving or writing 
loving or writing 



86 



ENGLISH GRA MMAR. 



Present Anterior (or Perfect) Tense, 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



SINGULAR NUMBER. 

. I have been . . loving or 

. thou hast been . . loving or 

. he has been . . loving or 



vi^ntmg 
writing 
writing 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

. we have been . , . loving or writing 



you have been , 
they have been . 



. loving or writing 
. loving or writing 



Past Anterior {or Pluperfect) Tense, 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



SINGULAR NUMBER. 



I had been , 
thou hadst been . 
he had been . 



. loving or writing 
. loving or writing 
. loving or writing 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

, we had been . . . 
. you had been . . . 
. they had been . . . 

Future Tense. 



loving or writing 
loving or writing 
loving or writing 



SINGULAR NUMBER. 

, I shall be . . . loving or writing 

. thou wilt be , . . loving or writing 

. he will be . . . loving or writing 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person . . we shall be . . . loving or writing 
Second person . . you will be . . . loving or writing 
Third person . . they will be . . . loving or writing 

Future Anterior Tense. 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



First person 
Second person 
Third person 



SINGULAR NUMBER. 

I shall have been . . . 
thou wilt have been . . . 
he will have been . . . 



PLURAL NUMBER. 

we shall have been . 

you 

they 



will have been 
will have been 



. loving or writing 
. loving or writing 
. loving or writing 



loving or writing 
loving or writing 
loving or writing 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

Of the Passive Voice of the Definite Form. 
All transitive verbs in the active voice give rise to a passive voice, 
which is formed by making the objective case of the active voice, the 
nominative case of the passive voice ; and then the nominative case of the 
active voice usually follows the verb, and is governed by the preposition 
by. For example in the indefinite form, 

Active Voice. 
John beat Henry frequently. 

In this sentence, heat is a transitive verb in the active voice, having John 
for its nominative case, and Henry for its objective case ; and this form is 
used because we speak of John — he is the principal person, the subject 
of conversation ; and, consequently, he is in the nominative case. 

But if Henry was most thought of, and the intention was to speak of 
him, and make his sufierings in the transaction the subject of conversation, 
then w^e should say, 

Henry was beate7i by John frequently. 
And as the verb now does not represent the nominative as acting, but as 
suffering, it is in the passive (or suffering) voice, in the indefinite form. 

But the definite form of the transitive verb is as much in the active voice, 
as is the indefinite ; and the sentence has an agent, an action, and an 
object : as, for example, 

Lefitiite. 
John was heating Henry when I came into the room. 

Here, we speak of John, the actor — he is the subject of conversation; 
and, consequently, we use the active voice, as we do in the indefinite form 
above. 

But suppose it was the intention to speak oi Henry, who is the sufferer, 
and make him, in regard to this transaction (the beating), the subject of 
conversation, and thus to make his name the nominative to a verb in the 
passive voice, definite form; how would that verb be formed? The sense 
would not be expressed by saying, " Henry was beating;^^ because w;as 
heating is in the active voice of the definite form, and, consequently, ex- 
presses the action of its nominative ; w^hereas, it was desired to express 
the passion, or suffering, of the objective. 

iVgain, the sense would not be expressed by saying " Henry w;as beaten;'' 
for, though that is passive, it is i7idefinite, and expresses the action com 
pleted in some past time ; whereas, the defiiiite is to express an action not 
completed, but progressive; that is, taking place within the time men- 
tioned. 

The simple participle, then, will not enable the substantive verb "6e," 
in any of its moods or tenses, to express the true meaning; neither 
"Henry is beating," nor "Henry is beaten," will answer. There will 
be found, in the definition of participles, one form of that part of speech, 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

called present passive participle. It is formed by placing 6em^ before the 
past participle ; as, loved, being loved; written, being written; beaten, 
bei7ig beaten. Let us then take the present passive participle of the verb 
beat (being beaten), and annex it to the verb be, in the tense in which the 
sentence is which we are now considering, and say, 

Henry was being beaten by John, 
and we form the passive voice, definite form, of the verb beat, in the past 
tense of the indicative mood. Was being beaten is a verb in the passive 
voice (of the verb was beating), and in the definite form, and agrees with 
Henry. 

Charles is building a house. 
Here is a definite form of the verb build, in the present tense, indicative 
mood, and in the active voice ; and this voice is used because Charles, the 
actor, is the subject of conversation; but if the house were the subject of 
conversation alone, it would not be correct to say, 

The house is building by Charles, 
because the rule of all grammarians declares the verb is, and a present 
participle {is building, or is writing), to be in the active voice, and, conse- 
quently, expressive of the action, and not the suffering, of a nominative 
case. 

The attempt is sometimes made to evade the true passive by some real 
or supposed equivalent. For example, 

The house is in the process of being built. 
In the first place, this evasion does not dispense with the necessity of the 
definite passive voice, any more than the sentence, 

He is in the act of writing a letter, 
renders unnecessary the definite active sentence, 

He is writing. 
Either may be admitted ; but neither renders the other ungrammatical. 
Besides that, the passive being built really occurs in the first substitute, 
viz., *' The house is in the process of being built ;^^ while the substitute 
itself is inelegant. 

The passive voice, then, of " Charles is building the house," must be, 
The house is being built by Charles. 

We sometimes meet with the objection, that is ought not to come with 
its own participle, being. We reply that is, as an auxiliary verb, loses a 
portion of its power of expressing simple existence, as it does when a 
principal verb ; as, in almost all cases, the auxiliary verb becomes par- 
tially merged in the meaning and office of the principal verb or participle. 
Will has a very different office in the sentence, " We will deprive you of 
property," from that expressed in the sentence, *' He wills to you a thou 
sand dollars." 



E T YMOLOG Y. 89 

Have, as a verb, expresses possession: ''I have a farm," I possess a 
farm. In *' I have cultivated a farm," have only gives the relative time of 
the verb cultivated. 

Have, as an auxiliary, also, is used in the same verb with its participle : 
have had, had had, will have had. 

To the objection that the passive voice of the definite form of the verb 
does not sound well, we can only reply, that it may be the novelty that 
strikes the ear unpleasantly; and any person who has from his infancy 
been in the habit of hearing and using words ungrammatically, will find 
his ear ofl^ended when he comes to hear and read words grammatically 
applied. 

It is sometimes asserted that we may be allowed to say " The house is 
building," instead of '' The house is being built," because there occur in 
our language such anomalies as " The meat cuts well," when it is evident 
that it is the knife that cuts. A grammarian will readily perceive the dif- 
ference in the circumstances of the tv/o cases quoted. In the phrase, 
'*The meat cuts well," we have only a substitute of one word for an- 
other ; it may be right, or it may be wrong; its grammatical relations are 
the same. It is immaterial whether we say, " The rose smells well," or 
''He smells the rose." The word ''smell,'' in each sentence, is a verb ; 
and it is only the meaning of the word that is in dispute. It is a question 
of definition ; w^hile the attempt to deprive the transitive definite verb 
of its passive voice, is to strike at the foundation of the language, and to 
strip it of one of its most important qualities ; that of making both actor 
and suflferer, each in turn and at pleasure, the subject of conversation. 

It is again objected to the definite passive voice, that it is unnecessary, 
as the active definite is sufficient. No one, it is added, mistakes, when it 
is said, " The house which is building," and supposes that the house is 
really erecting itself. 

That is true, because the house is an inanunate object ; and, therefore, 
the meaning is easily obtained, though it is exactly opposite to the 
assertion. 

But, where animate beings are the subjects of conversation, the mean- 
ing may be less obvious. 

''The law says, he who is found stealing shall be imprisoned. The 
ivitness testified that, when he came, 

" The black boy was stealing." 
Now, according to the true meaning of words, the black boy would be 
liable to imprisonment. But if, afterwards, it should appear that the wit- 
ness really meant to say that the black boy was ''leing stolen,'' just as 
some persons mean that "the house is being built," when they say that 
*' the house is building," then surely great injustice would be done to the 
boy. There is an important difference between doing and suffering; and 
that diflference is grammatically shown by the appropriate use of the active 
and passive voices of a verb. 

H2 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is a verb ? 

What is a transitive verb ?" 

What is an intransitive verb ? 

Can verbs be used both as transitive and intransitive? 

What belong to verbs ? 

With what do the number and person of a verb correspond ? 

What is this correspondence called ? 

What are the characteristics peculiar to a verb ? 

What is meant by mood ? 

What is meant by tense ? 

How many moods are there ? 

What are they ? 

How many leading tenses are there ? 

Name them. 

What do the three independent tenses express ? 

How many relative tenses are there ? 

What are the relative tenses called ? 

What do they express ? 

What is a regular verb ? 

What is an irregular verb ? 

What are defective verbs ? 

What do you say of the defective verb quoth "i 

What of the verb ought ? 

What tense of the infinitive mood follows ought 1 

What are auxiliary verbs ? 

ON THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 

What is meant by conjugation ? 

What is necessary to be done before conjugation? 

How are the perfect participles formed from love and v^rite ? 

Which of these verbs is regular, and which irregular ? 

What does the indicative express ? 

What is meant by present tense ? 

Conjugate the verbs love and write in the singular number of the 

present tense. 
In what tenses is the solemn style used ? 
In which person must the verb ngiee with nouns ? 
Conjugate the verb in the plurai. 
What does the past tense denote ? 

Conjugate love and write in the singular number of this tense 
What does the future tense denote ? 
How is thie tense formed ? 
Conjugate the verbs love and write in this tense. 
Are shall and will used to express similar ideas ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

What does will express in the first person ? 

What does will express in the second and third persons ? 

What does shall express in the first person ? 

What does shall express in the second and third persons ? . 

How are shall and will farther applied ? 

What does the present anterior tense express ? 

How is the present anterior tense formed ? 

Conjugate the verbs in this tense. 

What is meant by past anterior tense ? 

How is the past anterior tense formed in the indicative ? 

Conjugate the verbs love and write in this tense. 

What is meant by the future anterior tense ? 

How is this tense formed ? 

Conjugate the verbs in this tense. 

What do you say of will and shall ? 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

How is this mood used ? 

Are these meanings expressed by any change in the verb I 

How many persons and tenses are there in this mood ? 

How is the verb formed ? 

Conjugate the verbs in this mood. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

What is meant by the potential mood? 

How is this mood formed ? 

What are the signs of this mood ? 

How many tenses are there in this mood ? 

What are they ? 

How is the present tense formed ? 

Conjugate love and write in the present tense of this mood. 

How is the past tense formed ? 

Conjugate it. 

How is the present anterior tense formed ? 

Conjugate it. 

How is the past anterior tense formed ? 

Conjugate it. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

What does the subjunctive imply ? 
How is this mood formed ? 

Conjugate love and write in this mood, from the potential form, 
omitting should. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

What do you understand by the infinitive mood ? 
What is the sign of this mood ? 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

How is the present tense formed ? 
How is the anterior tense formed ? 

How does the present tense of the infinitive mood express time ? 
. How does the anterior tense express time ? 

PARTICIPLES. 
189. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and is so 
called because it participates in the nature of the verb and the 
adjective. 

190. As participles are derived from verbs, they partake of many of the 
accidents of that part of speech. Especially have they a relation to time ; 
as, indeed, any word denoting action or being, in form, must, in some 
degree, express the time in which that action or being took place. 

19L It has already been stated that verbs have two participles, present 
and perfect. The perfect is used in the formation of the compound, or 
anterior tenses ; as, have loved, might have written: and the present is used 
in the construction of the definite form of the verb ; as, is writing, was 
loving. 

192. Participles are independent parts of speech. There are 
two simple participles ; namely, the present (or active) partici- 
ple ; and the perfect (or passive) participle. 

Present or Active [Simple) Participle. 

193. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the 

root of any verb, omitting the final e of the verb, if it has any ; 

thus, 

From love comes loving, 

** have ** having, 

*' sit *' sitting, 

** he ** being. 

194. The present participle is used in a sentence to express a 

collateral action or event ; as, 

" The king, being on his throne, was pleased," &c. 
** I found the man sitting on the ground." 

195. The time of this participle is relative, like that of the verb in the 
infinitive mood. If the verb with which it is connected is in the present 
tense, then the time of the participle is the same, although no change ia 
made in the name of the part of speech. For example : 

Fast Time. 

** John was found studying his lesson." 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

Here, the present participle studying represents an action in the same time 
as that represented by the past tense of the passive verb, was found. 
Present Time. 
** Charles is at home, reading his book." 
Future Time. 

''William will find you, tf^as^mg- your time." 

Perfect or Passive Participle, Simple Form, 

196. The perfect or passive participle (simple) from a 
transitive verb, expresses the effect produced by the action 
represented by the verb ; or the situation of the object, conse- 
quent upon that action. 

*' The v^heel crushed the child." 

The word crushed is a transitive verb in the active voice. The passive 
voice of that verb v^^ould show the effect ; as, 

" The child was crushed by the wheel." 

The perfect participle from the same verb, used as a separate part of 
speech, shows the condition of the object : 

** We found the child crushed by the wheel." 

197. The perfect participle from a regular verb is always like 
the first person of the past tense. [For participles from irregu- 
lar verbs, see page 61.] 

198. As the intransitive verb does not affect any object, its perfect par- 
ticiple is only used to form the anterior tenses. To make a participle from 
the verbs in the following sentences, ''The bird sings," ''The bird 
sung," we say, the bird has sung, or had sung, and not is or was sung. 

COMPOUND PARTICIPLES. 

199. Compound participles are of two kinds, active and 
passive. 

200. The active compound participle is formed by prefixing 
the word having to the perfect participle ; thus, from the perfect 
participles loved and written, are formed the compound partici- 
ples, having loved, and having written, 

201. The compound participle denotes a time anterior to that expressed 
m its accompanying verb. It is also used to express the cause for the 
event represented by the verb. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

^^ Having lived three years in that city, he must certainly know something 

of its police." 
*' I may speak of him with propriety, having known him for a long time." 

PARSING. 

Having cheated his neighbor in another affair, he may be suspected of 
this crime. 

Having cheated is a compound participle, from the transitive verb cheat. 
[When the present participle having is connected with a 
past participle from any verb, the two words are taken 
together, and called a compound participle. The scholar 
will bear in mind, that the compound participle is formed 
from any perfect participle, by prefixing having; thus, 
having loved, having sold.] 

his is a pronoun, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender, possessive case, governed by neighbor. 

neighbor ..... is a noun, third person, singular number, masculine gen- 
der. [Because we do not know whether the word means 
a male, we are to suppose it in the masculine gender ; 
this is an instance of what is sometimes called the common 
gender, 45.] 

tn is a preposition, governing affair. 

another is an indefinite pronominal adjective, qualifying the noun 

affair. 

affair is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, governed by the preposition in. 

he is a personal pronoun (standing for the person supposed to 

be spoken of), third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, nominative case to the verb may be. 

may be suspected is a verb, third person, singular number, potential mood, 
present tense, and agrees with its nominative, he. It is 
in the passive voice from the active verb to suspect. 

of is a preposition, governing crime. 

this is a demonstrative adjective, qualifying crime. 

crime is a noun, third person, singular number, objective case, 

and governed by the preposition of. 

EXAMPLES . 

Having obtained permission, he addressed the assembly. 

Having tasted the fruit, I became wise. 

Having spent my life with you, I can judge of your character. 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

Passive Compound Participle, 

202. The passive compound participle denotes reception, or 
suffering, and is either present or past. 

203. The present compound passive participle denotes present 
time of sufferance, or passion ; and is formed by prefixing being 
to the perfect participle simple ; as, being loved, being saved, 

204. The past compound passive participle denotes an ante 
rior suffering, or passion ; as, 

^'Having been accepted, he was happy.'* 
*' Having been cured, he is well." 

This participle is formed by prefixing the compound participle, having 
been, to the perfect simple participle of any transitive verb ; as, " Having 
been made,'''' '* Having been loved''' 

Further Remarks upon the Nature of Participles. 

Participles have in them many of the characteristics of the verb whence 
they are derived. They have a relative time ; that is, time that has a 
relation to the tense of the verb with which they stand in connection ; for 
a participle does not stand alone. For example, the active compound par- 
ticiple, having loved, having v^ritten, &c., denotes a time anterior to the 
verb in the same sentence. 

"Having written the letter, he sealed it.'* 
Here, sealed is in the past tense ; and the compound participle denotes an 
action (having written), concluded before the action represented by the 
verb sealed was commenced. 

" Having written the letter, I now seal it." 
Here, having written is anterior to the present tense. 

"Having written the letter, you will seal it." 
Here, having written is anterior to the future tense ; and the same relation 
exists between this participle and the various tenses of the potential 
mood. 

We should also remark, that having written is the active form of the 
participle, and partakes of the active form of the verb. 

The passive form of the participle, being written and having been written, 
is used when the sense is passive. For example : 

" The letter, having been written, was despatched immediately." 

"■'Being saved by grace, we are heirs of heaven." 
Having been written is the compound participle for the indefinite form of 
the verb ; while being written is the conapound participle passive from the 
definite form of the verb. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The participles are thus arranged : 

1. The simple present {ox active) participle is loving. It denotes a conti- 
nuance of action or being, and is, consequently, contemporary with the 
verb in the same sentence : 

** He was found caressing his child." 

2. The compound active is, having loved. This denotes time anterior to 
any verb with which it is connected ; but the action of the participle pro- 
ceeds from the same object represented by the noun or pronoun, that is in 
the nominative case to the verb with which it stands in the sentence. 

" Having written the letter, John sent it to the post-office." 
The meaning is, when John had written his letter, he (John) sent it to the 
post-office. This is really the anterior tense of the simple active present 
participle. 

3. The past or perfect participle, simple and passive, is loved. 

*' The child was found crushed beneath the wheels." 
This denotes a condition contemporaneous with the verb was found, though 
it was caused before. 

4. The present compound passive participle is, being loved, heing written. 
This denotes a continuance of passion or effisct in a time contemporaneous 
with the verb with which it is connected. For example : 

^'' Being made comfortable, I consent to stay.'''' 
" The letter, heing written, may remain unsealed." 
The active WQxh, which is definite, shows a continuance of action; the 
passive form, whether of the verb or the participle, assimilates in time. 

" You are writing the letter." 
The participle passive is written; present compound passive, heing writ- 
ten; past compound passive, having been written. This is the anterior 
time or tense of the compound passive participle, and denotes a time ante- 
riorly relative to the verb with which it is connected ; but it denotes this 
in a passive form. For example : 

*' Having been reaped, the field was ploughed." 
"Having been ploughed, the field is rough." 

It will be seen that the action referred to by reaped, in the first sentence, 
is anterior to the time of was ploughed; and the time of ploughed, in the 
second sentence, is anterior to is rough. 

PARTICIPIAL NOUN. 

205. The present and compound participles become participial 
pouns when they are the primaries of prepositions ; as, 

*' jBy reading the book, he acquired knowledge." 
''He was imprisoned /or being concerned in the riot." 



ETYMOLOGY. 97 

206. Tne participle is so much a noun in this form, that it may be- 
come the primary of a noun or pronoun in the possessive case: **By 
Charles's entering the house." It, however, retains its verbal office in 
governing the objective case ; as, "by respecting him,''' &lc. [See Syntax 
for case.] 

PARSING. 

By smiting the rock, Moses gained water. 

By is a preposition, governing smiting. 

smiting .... is a participial noun ; (it is of itself a participle ; but when a 
present participle is referred to by a preposition, it is called a 
participial noun ;) it is in the third person, singular number, 
objective case, and is governed by the preposition by. 

the is a definite article, limiting rock. 

rock is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, objective case, governed by the participial noun smiting. 
Moses .... is a noun proper, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender, nominative case to the verb gained. 
gained .... is a regular transitive verb, third person, singular number, 
indicative mood, past tense, and agrees with Moses. 

water is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, and in the objective case, governed by gained 
In digging the well, the men discovered a treasure. 
By concealing complaints, we prolong sickness. 
The children v^^ere killed for mocking the prophets. 
Religion strengthens the body by supporting the mind. 
The man was detected in the act of killing his friend. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is a participle ? 

How many participles are there ? 

Name them. 

What is a present participle ? 

How is a present participle used? 

What is a perfect participle from a transitive verb ? 

What do you say of perfect participles from regular verbs ? 

How is the perfect participle from an intransitive verb used? 

How is the compound participle formed ? 

What does the compound participle denote ? 

How are participial nouns formed ? 

Are they ever qualified ? 

ADVERBS. 

207. An Adverb is a word used to show some circumstance 
of a verb or participle. 

7 I 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It serves also to assist an adjective ; and one adverb frequently becomes 
secondary to another. For example : 

He v^rites elegantly. JSfom she is speaking. 

Whither thou goest, I will go. He Vi^rites very elegantly. 

He is a very great man. 

208. Many of the adverbs admit of comparison in the same 
manner that adjectives do. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Fast faster fastest 

Richly more richly most richly 

Elegantly more elegantly .... most elegantly 

209. Adverbs are very numerous ; yet most of them may be ranked 
under the following heads : 

Of TIME ; as, now, then, when, soon, lately, before, ever, never, daily, 
weekly, straight ways, always, again, whenever, whensoever, yet, as, since, 
ago, hitherto, heretofore. 

Of QUALITY and manner; as, richly, badly, notably, as, so, how, 
socially. 

Of place; as, upward, downward, forward, nowhere, herein, back- 
ward, whence, thence, somewhere, anywhere. 

Of cause; as, for, therefore, wherefore, why. 

Of QUANTITY ; as, much, little, abundantly. 

Of DOUET ; as, perhaps, haply, possibly, peradventure, perchance. 

Of ORDER ; as, secondly, lastly. 

Of NEGATION ; as, nay, no, nowise. 

Of INTERROGATION ; as, how ? why ? when? where? wherefore? 

Of AFFIRMATION ; as, truly, certainly, yes, yea, aye, verily. 

Not is called a negative adverb. 

Some adverbs are formed by prefixing the indefinite article to a noun ; 
as, ahead, ashore, astern, aside, aground, afloat, aslant, 

210. Almost any common adjective may be formed into an adverb by 
adding Zy, or changing le to ly; thus, great and rich make greatly and 
richly. 

' 211. A single adverb frequently supplies the place of a preposition, an 
article, an adjective, and a noun: thus, ''he writes rapidly;^'' that is, he 
writes in a rapid manner. "She performed handsomely ;^^ that is, she 
performed in a handsome manner. "■ She performed so as to please every 
person;" or, she performed in such a manner as to please every person. 
"She performed as well as you;" that is, she performed m as g-ooc? a 
manner as you. 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 

212. The adverbs when, where, &c., form a very considerable part of a 
sentence; thus, ''I will stay where I was;" that is, "I will stay in the 
place in which I was." 

213. Some adverbs connect sentences in a manner similar to that of 
conjunctions; thus, "He stood while I sat." *'He went when I came." 
"He writes as well as I write." It is to be remarked, however, that 
when adverbs of time connect two sentences, one of the sentences is used 
to express the time referred to by the adverb; as, " He goes w)/ii7e you 
stand." While, in this sentence, is used to qualify or express the time 
oi goes ; while its own time is expressed by stand, 

PARSING. 

You write more elegantly now. 

Tom is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, nomi- 
native case to the verb write. 

write is an irregular intransitive verb, second person, plural num- 
ber, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with its 
nominative, you. [The scholar should here begin to conju 
gate the verbs, page 8^.1 

more is an adverb, qualifying elegantly. 

elegantly . . is an adverb of manner, qualifying write, 

now is an adverb of time, qualifying write, 

EXAMPLES. 

They love their country very sincerely. 

They wrote scandalously. 

We love to be praised for our good deeds. 

How many rnen had the officer ? 

^ow is an interrogative adverb, qualifying the adjective many. 

many is an indefinite adjective, qualifying men. 

men is a noun common, third person, plural number, masculine 

gender, objective case, governed by the verb had. 
had ...... is a transitive verb, third person, singular number, indicative 

mood, past tense, and agrees with its nominative, officer. 

the is a definite article, limiting officer, 

officer is a noun common, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender, nominative case to had. [When a sentence is in an 

interrogative form, it is usually considerably transposed.] 

EXAMPLES. 

How many men have you seen ? How many books have you read ? 

Whose book have you torn so badly ? 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is an adverb ? 

Do adverbs admit of comparison ? 

Compare the adverbs richly and elegantly. 

How are adverbs classed ? 

How are common adjectives made into adverbs ? 

Of what parts of speech do adverbs supply the place ? 

Show the manner of supplying. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

214. A conjunction is a word used to connect two words or 
sentences, and to show, in some degree, their dependence ; as, 

"■ John and Charles wrote a letter, and sent it by the mail." 
Here, the first and connects the nouns John and Charles; the last connects 
the two sentences. 

215. There are two kinds of conjunctions, copulative and 
disjunctive. 

216. The principal copulative conjunctions are and, both, if, than, and 
that. 

217. The disjunctive conjunctions are hut, nor, either, or, whether, yet, 
though, except, neither, lest, unless, save, &c. 

218. Some of these conjunctions obtain other names from their several 
offices. Thus, than is a conjunction of comparative difference ; if, a con- 
ditional conjunction; that, an explanatory conjunction. Though is called 
an unconditional conjunction. Both is sometimes called a dual conjunc- 
tion; that is, a word connecting only two primaries; as, Both John and 
William; not. Both John and William and Charles. 

219. A copulative conjunction connects two or more words 
engaged in the same office ; as, " Charles and John are friends ;" 
" Two and three make five." 

220. When sentences are connected, the copulative conjunction conti- 
nues the same sense; thus, '' Charles writes a?if^ William reads;" both 
sentences are affirmatively expressed. '* Charles can not read, and Wil- 
Ham can not write ;" both of these sentences are negatively expressed. 

221. A disjunctive conjunction connects words when the object of one 
of its primaries only is engaged ; as, " Charles or William writes ;" (only 
one person is here declared to write.) It connects sentences where the 
sense is renewed in some different form, or where the subject is changed ; 
thus, " William can mend a pen, but he can not write a copy." In this 
t-entence, the sense is changed from an affirmative to a negative assertion. 
(For a more particular description of the conjunctions, see Eules of Syntax 
on the office of the conjunctions.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 101 

The propriety of the term disjunctive conjunction has been disputed, as 
involving a contradiction in terms. This is only quarrelling with terms, 
and with terms that are admirably calculated for expressing the office of 
the word. The copulative or conjunctive conjunction not only connects 
words and sentences, but it also requires a continuance of the idea, in the 
same form. The disjunctive conjunction connects the parts of speech, in 
their grammatical relation, and is so far conjunctive ; but it admits of an 
opposition, or change of the sense, and is consequently disjunctive. 

PARSING. 

Charles writes rapidly with elegance and precision. 
Charles .... is a noun proper, third person, singular number, nominative 

case to writes, 
writes is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present 

tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with Charles. 
rapidly .... is an adverb, qualifying writes. [It assists the word writes to 

express more distinctly the action of Charles, by pointing 

out the manner.] 

with is a preposition, governing elegance and precision. 

elegance . . . is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by with, 
and is used to connect or conjoin elegance and precision, shoeing 

that both of them are objects of the preposition with; it is 

therefore a copulative conjunction, connecting elegance and 

precision, 
precision . . is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the preposition with, 

EXAMPLES. 

Mary and John sung a duett. 
Charles sung and danced for his amusement. 
William has a poor and sick friend. 
Sarah writes elegantly and rapidly. 

Charles or William purchased two books. 

Charles ... is a noun proper, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, nominative case to the verb purchased. 

or is a conjunction disjunctive ; it connects Charles and Wil- 
liam, (but because it determines in the mind that only one 
of them performed the action mentioned, it is called a dis- 
junctive conjunction). 

William ... is a noun proper, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, nominative case to purchased. 
12 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



purchased . . is a transitive verb, in the third person, singular number, 
indicative mood, past tense, and agrees with its nominative, 
Charles. 

two is a numeral ordinal adjective, qualifying hooks. 

hooks is a noun common, third person, plural number, neuter gen- 
der, objective case, governed by the \eYh purchased. 

EXAMPLES. 

The man imported and sold Shakspeare's plays. 
The king or the queen invited him to a feast. 
I saw neither him nor his brother. 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What is a conjunction ? 

Name the principal classes. 

How many kinds of conjunctions are there? 

What is the office of a copulative conjunction? 

What is the office of a disjunctive conjunction? 

What is the conjunction than called? 

What is if called ? 

What is that called ? 

What is though called? 

What is said of both ? 



PREPOSITIONS. 
222. A Preposition is a word used to connect a noun or pro- 
noun, neither the agent nor object of a verb, with some other 
word, by expressing its relation. 

EXAMPLES. 

Agent Verb. Object. Preposition. Connected Noun. 

Charles . . . wrote . . . a . . . letter . . . with . . . . a . . . pen. 
Henry .... drove . . . the . . horse . . . through . . the . . meadow. 

223. The principal prepositions are given in the following list ; and it 
would be well for the scholar to commit them to memory : 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About 


Amidst 


Before 


Beyond 


Above 


Among 


Behind 


By 


According to 


Amongst 


Below 


Concerning 


Across 


Around 


Beneath 


Down 


After 


Aslant 


Beside 


During 


Against 


At 


Besides 


Except 


Along 


Athwart 


Between 


Excepting 


Amid 


Bating 


Betwixt 


For 





ETYMOLOGY. 




From 


On 


Through 


Unto 


In 


Over 


Throughout 


Up 


Into 


Out of 


Till 


Upon 


Instead of 


Past 


To 


With 


Near 


Regarding 


Touching 


Within 


Nigh 


Respecting 


Towards 


Without 


Of 


Round 


Under 




Off 


Since 


Underneath 





103 



There are several words vi^hich are now called prepositions, that were 
formerly verbs of the imperative mood — save, but, &c. Sometimes two 
words are taken together as one preposition ; as, instead of, according to, 
from before. 

Prepositions losing their primary, or being associated with the verb, 
become adverbs; thus, "The ship came ^o." "The boat came w." 
" The man threw down the book." " He was looked upon.''^ 

224. But is a preposition when it signifies except; thus, " They have all 
gone but my father." When it only connects words or sentences, it is a 
conjunction. 

225. Prepositions are frequently omitted before the nouns they govern. 
First, nouns expressive of time, distance and measurement, are frequently 
governed by prepositions understood ; as, " He was sick the whole time ;" 
that is, during the whole time. " He is three feet high ;" that is, high to 
three feet. " Reading is sixty miles from Philadelphia;" that is, at sixty 
miles from Philadelphia." 

226. Nouns or pronouns expressing the receiver, following verbs which 
imply giving, lending, borrowing, selling, &c., are often governed by 
a preposition understood; as, "I gave you a dollar;" that is, I gave a 
dollar to you. "I wall lend you a book;" that is, I will lend a book to 
you. "I will buy you a knife ;" that is, I will buy a knife /or you. 

PARSING. 

Stars give light in the night. 

Stars is a noun, third person, plural number, in the nommativ© 

case to give. 

give is a transitive verb, third person, plural number, indicative 

mood, present tense, and agrees wnth stars. 

light is a noun, third person, singular number, objective case, and 

governed by the verb give. 

in is a preposition. [A preposition is used to express some par- 
ticular relation; thus, John put a pen upon the table ; James 
pointed a finger towards the table ; Charles put a rule under 
the table ; John thrust a knife through the table ; I hurt my 
finger with the table ; I held my hand over the table ; I held 
my hand on the table. In expresses the relation between the 
main sentence and night; the relation expressed by a prepo- 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sition to its primary word, is government, because the objec- 
tive case is required after a preposition ; as, to him, by me, 
on them, through her. hi is therefore a preposition, govern- 
ing night.'] 

the is a definite article, limiting night. 

night is a noun, third person, singular number, objective case, and 

governed by the preposition in. 

EXAMPLES. 

Charles sells apples for money. Girls wear bonnets in the winter. 

Boys wear hats at play. Men hate hypocrites in religion. 

He will write every lesson but that. 

He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, nominative case to the verb will write. 

will write . . is an irregular, transitive verb (because it governs lesson), 
third person, singular number, indicative mood, future tense, 
and agrees with its nominative, he. 

every is a distributive adjective, qualifying lesson. 

lesson is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the verb will write. 

^ut is, in this sentence, a preposition, governing the noun lesson, 

understood after the word that. 

that is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, qualifying lesson, un- 
derstood ; lesson would be in the objective case, and governed 
by hut 

EXAMPLES. 

You will love every boy but this. 

They will write the lesson which you gave them. [226 

RECAPITULATOHY EXERCISES, 

What is a preposition? 

What are the principal prepositions ? 

When is hut a preposition ? 

When is hut a conjunction? 

Before what words are prepositions sometimes omitted ? 

INTERJECTIONS. 
227. An Interjection is a word used to denote some sudden 
emotion ; as. Oh ! Ah ! Alas ! It does not perform any office 
in a sentence ; and is to be considered rather a notice of feelino-, 
than expression of it. 

228. Interjections are by no means so numerous as some writers have 
supposed. List, hush, hehold, har'k, and many such words, are verbs; 



ETYMOLOGY. 



105 



hist, tut, and such words, scarcely deserve names; but, if they are admit- 
.ed, they will rank among interjections. 

219. The interjections are not, or rather ought not to be, numerous. 
Alas ! Ah ! Oh ! O ! Pho ! Fie ! Hilloa ! Ho ! Hail ! All hail ! and a few 
more words of the hke import, are admitted ; but most of the other words 
used interjectively are only so many deformities of the language. 

" Oh ! for that w^arning voice." 
This means, '* How I wish for that warning voice 1" 



OF THE LIGAMENTS OF LANGUAGE. 

It may be proper here to notice, that there are, in all languages, certain 
words which seem to be connecting parts, or ligatures. They frequently 
stand for other words, and are always ready to assist in the formation of 
sentences. These are the pronouns, the articles, the pronominal demonstra- 
tive adjectives, certain of the adverbs, such as when, where, whilst, and 
most of the conjunctions and prepositions. These are the ligaments. Some 
of them recur in almost every sentence ; while often, in a whole page of a 
book, we have not the repetition of a common adjective, a noun, or a verb. 
To these parts of speech, then, that serve to introduce and give the true 
meaning of the primary nouns and adjectives, it is highly proper to 
give particular attention, that their various proper significations, and 
their influence upon primary words, may be fully understood. In the 
course of the portion of this work which treats of Etymology, much at- 
tention has been given to these constantly recurring words ; and in the 
syntactical part there will be found further illustrations, in the course of 
the rules laid down. Too much attention can scarcely be given to these 
explanations ; they will aid the scholar in the great work before him, and 
lead him, perhaps, to further discoveries of delicate shades of difference 
in the words. 

An understanding of the shades of diff'erence is of importance in com- 
position. It admits of an appropriate selection of words, and an exactness 
m the expression of the writer's meaning ; without which, composition is 
loose and indefinite. 



OF THE CONJUNCTIVE CHARACTER OF PRONOUNS 
AND ADVERBS. 

In the course of an examination of the pronouns and adverbs, it 
will be found that most of them are resolvable into two classes, conjunc- 
tive and disjunctive, resembling the offices of conjunctions. The 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

relative pronouns are conjunctive ; they connect parts of a compound sen- 
tence as much, and almost in the same manner, as do conjunctions. For 
example, 

*' The volume which lies on the table was written by Fenelon." 

Which, in this example, connects the primary sentence, *' The volume 
was written by Fenelon," with the explanatory sentence, ^^ which lies on 
the table.'* 

The difference between the relative pronoun and the personal pronoun 
is shown thus : 

"The volume was written by Fenelon ; it lies on the table." 

Here are two independent sentences ; the personal pronoun it is disjunc- 
tive ; and two declarations are made, viz., was written and lies : while, in 
the example quoted above, there is but one independent declaration, was 
written; and lies is explanatory. 

EXAMPLES. 

Co7ijunctive. 
The book contains lessons which instruct. 

Disjtinctive. 

The book contains lessons ; they instruct. 

Conjunctive. 
You must understand what you read. 

Conjunctive. 

I have hope ; without which, I should die. 

The same kind of remarks apply to the adverbs. The adverbs whercj 
ViheUi whether^ whither, as, are conjunctive. 

*' Whither thou goest, I will go." 

In this example, the assertion is all in the simple sentence, ** I will go;" 
the other limb, "thou goest," is only explanatory, and is connected with 
the assertion to show where, 

" When you read, you must understand." 

Here, the two sentences are connected by when; whhout which, they 
would be independent and declaratory. 

Conjunctive. 

"I pardon, lest they despair." 

The common adverbs are not conjunctive : 

" You write rapidly.'''' 

Here, rapidly connects no dependent sentence with a declaratory one, as 
does the adverb as in the following : 

" He writes as you dictate." 



ETYMOLOGY. 107 

Adjectives involved with pronouns have the same conjunctive character 

as the pronouns : 

Conjwictive. 

** I do not know what books he reads.'* 

Examples of the different meaning of the sentences, when affected by 
conjunctive or disjunctive words, are given: 

Conjimdive, 
"The birds move rapidly when they fly." 

IHsju7ictive. 
*' The birds fly; they move rapidly." 

C(mjmictioe. 

** The children who study acquire knowledge." 

Di^undive. 
*' The children acquire knowledge ; they study." 

It may here be proper to state, that certain adverbs seem to belong to 
particular tenses. For example, the word since rarely appears without a 
verb of the present anterior (or perfect) tense as one of its primaries : 

^^ Since 1776, many States have been added to the Union." 
^^ I have written two volumes since I saw you." 



SYNTAX. 



Syntax treats of the formation of words into a sentence, and 
of their several relations, their agreements, government, and 
arrangement. 

The RELATION of words is their dependence or connection. 
Thus, all secondary words relate to their primaries ; pronouns 
to their antecedents, adjectives to nouns, and adverbs to verbs. 

Agreement is the conformity of a secondary part of speech 
to its primary, in those accidents or attributes that are common 
to both. 

Thus, the verb agrees with its nominative in number and per- 
son ; number and person being the only accidents common to a 
verb, and a noun or pronoun. The relative pronoun agrees 
with its antecedent in number, person, and kind ; and the nu- 
meral adjective agrees in number with its primary noun. 

Government of words is that power which one word has 
over another, to cause it to assume a different form. Thus, a 
transitive verb requires the objective case of a pronoun ; as, 
" He teaches them.'^^ Prepositions require the objective, &c. 

The ARr vngement of words is their collocation or position, 
upon which the sense is often dependent. Sometimes, in poetry, 
the arrangement or collocation is unnatural ; the sense must then 
be conveyed by emphasis, or it is liable to be mistaken. *' The 
white man then the Indian shot"— the white man shot the Indian 
— the Indian shot the white man. 

(108) 



SYNTAX. 



109 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

A sentence is an association of words, forming a complete 

sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite 
verb ; as, " She writes a letter." 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences, 
joined together by one or more connective words ; as, " The 
scholar performed the task, and then returned home." 

Sentences are also divided into active and passive sentences. 
(See, also, active and passive voices of the verb.) 

An active sentence is one in which a transitive verb and its 
objective case are expressed ; thus, 



Agent, or Nominative. 


Transitive Verb. 


Objective Case 


Rome . . . 


. destroyed . . 


. . Carthage. 


Faust . . . 


. invented . . 


. . printing. 


The Moors . 


. conquered . . 


. . Spain. 


Charles . . . 


. wrote . . . 


. . a letter. 



The following sentences are also active: "He was reading a book ;^' 
" He was writing a letter." 

A passive sentence is one, in which the objective case of an 
active sentence is taken for the nominative to the substantive 
verb be ; and the participle from the transitive verb, used in the 
active sentence, is placed after the substantive verb : the whole 
is followed by the preposition 5?/, expressed or understood, go- 
verning the agent or nominative to the active sentence ; thus, 



Carthage . 


. . was destroyed . . 


. by Rome. 


Printing 


. . was invented . . 


, . by Faust. 


Spain . . 


. . was conquered . . 


, . by the Moors. 


A letter . . 


. . was written . . . 


. . by Charles. 



There are several verbs in the language, which, though intransitive, 
appear so intimately blended with particular prepositions, that they allow 
the use of passive sentences, predicated on them and their accompanying 
prepositions. This use, though scarcely warranted by the genius of our 
language, seems so convenient, and of such authority, as to claim a con- 
sideration. The following, and many other sentences of a similar kind, 
though destitute of any object to the verb, may be made passive, by 

K 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

taking the object of the preposition for the nominative to the substantive 
verb, leaving the preposition as an adverb for the participle : 

Active. Passive. 

We looked up to him. He was looked up to by us. 

The preposition refers to the The noun is referred to by the 

noun. preposition. 

He alluded to Charles. Charles v^^as alluded to. 

There are, in sentences, a subject, a predicate, and a copula. 

By subject is meant the word which has something declared 
of its object ; thus, " John is wise." John is the subject. 

By predicate are understood the word or words expressing 
that which is declared ; thus, " John is wise ;" " John is a good 
boy." Wise and a good hoy are predicates. 

Copula is the word, or part of speech, which connects the 
subject to its predicate. " John is wise ;" " John is a good boy." 
Isy in both sentences, is the copula. 

EXAMPLES. 
Subject. Copula. Predicate^ 



Charles 
Death . 
He . . 
They . 
Charles 



is honest. 

is sin's Visages. 

has been sick. 

will be in order. 

would have been . . in good health. 



In active sentences, and those in which the verb is not of 
itself intransitive, the predicate is expressed partly or wholly by 
the verb ; the copula is then not required : thus, " He sings ;" 
*^ He studies his lesson." 

The verb he is really the only verb in the language which answers the 
purpose of a copula only; yet many verbs of a neuter kind are used in 
poetical phrases, instead of the substantive, when some characteristic of 
the agent is expressed ; thus, " The lion roams king of the forest ;" roams 
is no more than a substitute for is, and is, therefore, a copula, and not a 
predicate ; for the sentence is the mere assertion that the lion is king. 

The complement of a word or sentence is the preposition, and 
the part which it governs ; thus, "I live in this city;" '* The 
man of God came down ;" " He came from London." 

In these sentences, in this city is the complement of live; of God is the 
complement of man; and from Londo?i, the complement of came. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES, 

What does Syntax treat of? 
What is relation ? 
What is agreement ? 
What is government ? 
What is arrangement ? 
What is a sentence ? 
What is a simple sentence ? 
What is a compound sentence ? 
What is an active sentence? 
What is a passive sentence ? 
What is meant by subject ? 
What is meant by predicate ? 
What is the copula ? 
What is the complement ? 



ARTICLE. 
RULE I. 

INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

The indefinite article has, in general, a limiting power over 
nonns in the singular number ; yet it is frequently so blended 
with an adjective, particularly with few, that it is applied to a 
noun in the plural number; thus, '^ a few are so debased in their 
principles, that they do not reverence even parental authority.^' 
It is also connected with numeral adjectives ; as, "a thousand." 

There is a use of the indefinite article, v^'hich, instead of diminishing 
the idea, seems rather to increase it ; thus, if we say, **He will have few 
to assist him," it is evident that the meaning is negative, and that we wish 
it understood that " He v/ill have none to assist him ;" but if we say, *' He 
will have a few to assist him,'' the idea is positive, and we undoubtedly 
mean that there is a certainty of assistance, or that "He v/iil have some 
to assist him." So also of ''little good will come from that ;" or "a little 
good will come from that." 

The conjunction and is sometimes so used as to render necessary the 
intervention of the article, in order to show what words are connected. 
" He bore a yellow and white banner." " He bore a yellow and a white 
banner." In the first sentence, only one banner is meant; in the last, 
two are meant. The conjunction in the first sentence connects the words 
yellow an4 white; and in the last it connects (yellow) hanner and (white) 
hanner. 



]12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. , 

RULE IL 

DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

The definite article, the^ may limit nouns in the singular or 

plural number; as, the book, the books, the tree, the stars. 

The definite article is a general attendant on the superlative degree of 
an adjective; thus, "iAe most excellent man," ^^tJie best booko" It is 
also frequently used in sentences of comparison, and particularly when a 
proportion is implied ; thus, " the more he tried, the worse he wrote." (See 
paragraphs 14 and 15, Etymology.) 

" Reason was given to a man for the best and noblest of all purposes." 
In this sentence, the indefinite article a limits the word man to a single 
individual, whereas the whole human species is referred to. 

EXAMPLES. 

The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. 

As he had drawn the misfortunes upon himself by his own misconduct^ a 

few persons pitied him. 
A man is God's greatest work on earth. 
A profligate man is seldom found to be the good husband, the good father, 

or the beneficent neighbor. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 
RULE TIL 

AGREEMENT. 

When two or more nouns in the singular number are con- 
nected by a disjunctive conjunction, the pronoun for each 
should be in the singular number ; thus, 

"John, Charles, or William is the person who was there." 
" Either Charles or William was there, for I saw him.'''' 

John, Charles and William are each in the nominative case to the verb 
is; who is the relative pronoun, having John, or Charles, or William, for 
its antecedent ; but not all, as the circumstance is only declared of one. 

It may happen that the words connected may not agree in person ; for 
example, *' Either you or your brother were there." In that case, a refer* 
ence might be had as follows ; " for I saw one oi you.'''' 



SYNTAX. 113 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

The sun or moon has checked their course. 

The is a definite article, limiting sun. 

sun is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, nominative case to has checked. 

or is a disjunctive conjunction, connecting sun and moon. 

moon is a noun, third person, singular number, neuter gender, 

nominative case to has checked. 

has checked . is a regular transitive verb, third person, singular number, 
indicative mood, present anterior tense, and agrees with sun 
or moon, either. 

their is a personal pronoun (for they), in the possessive case, and 

governed by course. As a pronoun, it stands for either sun 
or maon, and not for both ; it should, therefore, be made from 
the singular pronoun it (its), as sun and moon are in the neu- 
ter gender. 

course .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, objective case, and governed by the verb has checked. 

Charles or William informed me that their book was destroyed. 

The master or scholar has been guilty of an action which will bring shame 
upon them. 

Either John or William was there, for I think I saw them. 

No man nor woman should enter upon an act, until they have well calcu- 
lated the consequences of it. 



RULE IV. 

NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. 

Nouns of multitude, if they express unity, are in the singular 
number; but if the individuals, rather than the body, are meant, 
they are plural : thus, 

*' Congress has adjourned.' ' 

*' There was a large party, which was composed of different classes.'* 

** The multitude were astonished, and they cried aloud." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

There was one committee appointed, and that committee were weak 
enough to report against their own opinion. 

There is an adverb, relating to was. 

was appointed is a verb in the passive voice, indicative mood, past tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with committee, 
8 K2 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

one is an ordinal numeral adjective, qualifying committee. 

committee ... is a noun of multitude, third person, singular number, nomi- 
native case to the verb was appointed. [Committee, though 
a noun of multitude, is in the singular number, because it 
is evident that the reference is made to it as one body, and 
not to the members ; hence the adjective one is used.] 

and is a copulative conjunction, connecting the sentence which 

precedes with that which follows. 

that is a demonstrative adjective, (used in the singular number,) 

qualifying committee in the second sentence. 

committee ... is a noun common, third person, singular number, in the 
nominative case to the verb were. 

were is a substantive verb, indicative mood, past tense, third per- 
son, plural number; but its nominative case, committee, is 
in the singular number ; therefore the verb does not agree 
with its nominative ; it should be was. 

weak is an adjective, relating to committee. 

enough is an adverb qualifying weak, showing how weak. 

to report ... is a regular (?) transitive (?) verb, in the infinitive mood, 
present tense ; it is governed by the adverb enough. 

against is a preposition, governing opinion, showing the connection 

between the verb to report and opinion; or showing what 
relation report had to the opinion. 

their is a personal pronoun, third person, plural number ; but as 

it stands for committee, which is in the third person, singular 
number, it should be its. It is governed by opinion. 

own is a possessive adjective, qualifying opinion. 

opinion .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, objective case, and governed by the preposition 
against. 
The closing sentence could be thus changed : " to report against the 

opinion of its members.'* 

EXAMPLES. 

The mob continued their work of infamy, until scarcely a vestige of our 

former boast was left. 
The meeting testified their approbation by a profound silence. 
He was disgraced by a public meeting, which declared that they believed 

him a traitor. 

RULE V. 

ANTECEDENT. 

The pronoun, whether relative or personal, should agree with 
its antecedent in person, number and gender ; thus, 

" I am certain that this is the man who performed the act ; for I saw him 

engaged in it." 



SYNTAX. 115 

IVJio, in this part of the sentence, is used merely to explain the word 
man; him is used, in the sentence, as a continuance of the subject, and 
not an explanation of its antecedent, and necessarily agrees with the noun 
man in gender. It represents the word act, and is chosen because it is of 
the neuter gender, in the singular number. 

Care should be taken to ascertain the exact antecedent. An instance 
of the importance of this remark occurs in the following sentences : 

*' I am the person who command you ;" 

that is, "/, who command you, am the person." Here, it is evident that 
/ is the antecedent of who. 

** I am the man who commands you." 
Here, man is the antecedent oi who. 

There are many rules relating to the relatives and antecedents ; but 
most of them become useless when the scholar knows what is the ante- 
cedent of the relative ; and he certainly must know, if he can understand 
the meaning of the sentence. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I am to read to the gentleman which is dressed in black. 

I is a. personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nomi- 
native case to the verb am. 

«^ is the substantive verb, first person, singular number, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and agrees with its nominative, /. 

to read .... is an irregular intransitive verb, infinitive mood, present 
tense, governed by am. 

to is a preposition, governing gentleman. 

the is a definite article, limiting gentleman. 

gentleman . is a noun common, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, in the objective case, and governed by the preposi- 
tion to. 

^^^^ is a relative pronoun for things, and, as it has its antecedent 

in, or stands for, gentleman,\i is incorrect, because who is the 
pronoun for persons ; the sentence should be, '* I am to read 
to the gentleman who is dressed in ulack." 

EXAMPLES. 

It is scarcely possible to find a lady which dresses with more taste than 
your sister. 

We listen with pleasure to the birds who gladden the spring with its 
voices. 

The city became impoverished, because their inhabitants spent its time 
in idleness. 



The exercise of reason appears as little in these leaders of elephants, 



as 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it does in the poor animals whom they sometimes hunt, and by whom they 
are sometimes hunted. 

Every man seems to find his own family much more pleasant than its 
neighbor's. 

RULE VI. 

AGREEMENT. 

Pronouns, whether personal or relative, standing collectively 
for nouns, which are connected by the conjunction and^ should 
be in the plural number ; thus, 

* ^ Charles and William are in mourning, because they have lost their 

friends." 
•' Tooke and Harris are authors who have written on the subject of 
grammar." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Give Charles and William his lesson. 

Give is a verb, imperative mood, present tense, agreeing with you^ 

understood (do you give). 
Charles . . . and William are nouns proper, third person, singular num- 
ber, objective case, governed by the preposition to, under- 
stood: '' Give his lesson to Charles and William." 
his is a personal pronoun, in the possessive case, from the sin- 
gular pronoun he; as a pronoun, his refers to Charles and 
William collectively, and is, therefore, incorrect; it should 
be, "Give Charles and William their lesson." 

lesson is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the verb give, 

EXAMPLES. 

The children found Charles and William at a distance from school, who 
pleaded for an excuse that his father permitted him to play truant. 

Henry, the Latin scholar, and William, sometimes amuses himself by 
playing chess. 

Every man found it necessary to provide for themselves what others had 
neglected to prepare for them. 

We found every man ready to defend their rights against any aggression 
which they might suppose unlawful. 

It was not enough that liberty was granted ; every individual was per- 
mitted to select the property that belonged to them. 

Each man was furnished with a pistol, and directed to discharge it as 
soon as they had taken good aim. 

Every person, whatever may be their station, is bound by the duties of 
morality and religion. 



SYNTAX. ]17 

NOTE. 

When each or every qualifies two nominative cases, connected by a7id, 
the verb agrees with each, individually, in the singular number; thus, 

''Every man and every woman is supposed to be perfect." 

When a sentence is thus expressed, it may be proper to use the word and 
as if it connected two sentences ; thus, 

''Every man is supposed to be perfect, and every woman is supposed to 
be perfect." 

Many grammarians appear to sanction the use of a plural verb in the 
following sentence : 

" Pharaoh, with his host, were drowned." 

This is wrong ; it should be, " Pharaoh and his host were drowned ;" or 
*' Pharaoh, with his host, was drowned." 

. RULE VII. 

AGREEMENT. 

Two or more nominative cases, though in the singular num- 
ber, connected by the conjunction and, require the verb to agree 
with them collectively in the plural number ; thus, 
" John and Charles are at school." 

*^o^^ is a noun proper, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender, nominative case to are. 

"^^ is a copulative conjunction, connecting John and Charles. 

Charles is a noun proper, third person, singular number, nominative 

case to are. 

^'^^ is a substantive verb, indicative mood, present tense, third 

person. [Though both of its nominative cases are singular, 
this verb is plural, because the nominatives are connected by 
a conjunction, which shows them to be equally the subject 
of the verb.] 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The sun which governs the day, the moon which rules the night, and 
even the food that we eat, teaches us that there is a God. 
teaches .... is an irregular transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense ; 
it is in the third person, singular number (first person, 1 
teach; second person, thou teachest; third person, he teaches). 
But its nominatives are sun, moon, audfood; nouns which, 
though in the singular number, are connected by the copula 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tive conjunction, and; therefore, the verb should be in tiio 
plural number, teach, to agree with its nominative cases. 

E X AMP LES. 

Hope in seeking, and disappointment in enjoyment, is marked as the 
bitterness of man's lot on earth. 
Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
Each officer and each soldier are allowed two rations a day. 

RULE vni. 

AGREEMENT. 

When two or more nominative cases, in the singular number, 

are connected by a disjunctive conjunction, they require the verb 

to agree with them, individually, in the singular number ; thus, 

*' John or Charles is the person who was expelled." 

*' Henry or his brother has departed on the same errand." 

John and Charles are nouns, in the singular number ; each is in 

the nominative case to is. 
is is in the singular number, because it is only one of them, and 

not both, of whom it is declared that he was the person. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Either John or Charles were at church. 
In this sentence, were is wrong. Of the two persons spoken of, only 
one is said to have been at church ; consequently, the verb which declared 
the existence should be singular (was), in order to agree wuh its^ single 
agent. 

EXAMPLES. 

No hope of heaven, nor fear of pains, are capable of diverting his mind 
or feeling, which are immovably fixed. 

Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays inattention, 
are certainly wrong. 

An appearance of levity, a casual smile, or momentary inattention in 
the duties of religion, are sufficient to warrant severe reproof. 

RULE IX. 

AGREEMENT. 

When the nominative cases are both singular and plural, and 
are connected by a disjunctive conjunction, the verb should be 
in the plural number; the plural nominative case should gene- 
rally be placed next to the verb ; thus, 

*' Charles or the girls vjere in fault." 



SYNTAX. 119 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The two houses or the barn is to be sold to pay the balance of his debts. 

Houses .... and ham are both in the nominative case to the verb is. 

is is the substantive verb, third person, singular number; one 

of its nominatives, though connected vi^ith the other by a dis- 
junctive, is plural; the verb should, therefore, be are, and 
the sentence stand thus: " The barn or the two houses are 
to be sold," (fee. 

EXAMPLES. 

The man and child who first called, or the person who is not known, is 
to be received in preference. 

The advantages of printing, or the vanity of publishing, has led him 
into the folly of prefixing his name to a book. 

RULE X. 

APPOSITION. 

Nouns in apposition, and pronouns in apposition with their 
antecedents, should agree in case ; thus, 

'' Call Mary ; lier who keeps the library ;'* 
that is, " Call her who keeps the library." 

" It was Mr. Prescott ; he who wrote the History." 

The introduction of the pronoun he, in the last sentence, makes the 
sense very different from what it would be, were that word omitted: ** It 
was Mr. Prescott who wrote the History." 

There is a diversity of opinion relative to the number of a proper noun 
that follows the plural titles of courtesy ; as. Misses, Messieurs, Masters. 
The custom is, where the title is used suhstaiitively in the plural, the 
proper noun may be singular; as, " The Misses Davidson," " The Mes- 
sieurs Norton." 

But when the title is only adjectively used, and in connection with a 
plural numeral adjective, then the proper noun should be plural, and the 
adjective title singular; as, "The two Miss Davidsons;" ''The two 
generals, Greene and Mercer, were present." 

" The Misses Brown present their respects ;" that is, the Misses who 
are named Brown, or are of the family of Brown, present their respects. 

" The three Miss Taylors ;" Miss, in this phrase, is only an adjective, 
of the feminine gender. 

These rules are rather arbitrary ; but they are derived from the best 
usage of the present time. It is rem.arked that, of married ladies, the 
name only is plural, and not the title ; as, " The Mrs. Thompsons." This 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



evidently springs from the fact that, in the English language, the title is 
not plurahzed, as in the French {Mesdames). The word Mistress, from 
which Mrs. comes, can not now be considered as synonymous with the 
title of courtesy given to all married ladies. Mrs. is an abbreviation of 
a word which is seldom spelled, though always pronounced. 

EXAMPLES. 

Omar, the son of Hassan, lived seventy-five years. 
You asked William, the bookseller, whom he saw. 
I am a friend to Henry, him who lost his property. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Praise the Lord, he that made the earth. 

Praise .... is a verb, second person, plural number, imperative mood, 
present tense, and agrees with you, understood. 

^^6 is a definite article, limiting Lord. 

^^^^ is a noun, third person, singular number, objective case, and 

governed by the verb praise. 

^^ is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, nominative case. [The pronoun he, being used 
to explain the word Lord, or in apposition with it, should 
agree with it in case ; Lord, being in the objective, requires 
Mm instead of he: thus, ** Praise the Lord, (praise) him that 
made the earth." 

EXAMPLES. 

The gentleman has gone, him whom you mentioned. 
I shall call upon Mary, she who keeps the library. 
Omar, the son of Hassan, him whom I before mentioned, left the cara- 
vansery. 

Have you heard of the new prophet of the west, he who was in this 
city last year ? 

How can you expect so much from your friends, they who have not 
known you a year ? 

RULE XL 

COMPARISON. 

Nouns or pronouns, compared by than or as, should agree in 

case; thus, 

''He is as old as thou (art)." "7 can write as well as he (can write)." 
' ' Charles is a better scholar than William (is)." ' ' He beat William more 
than (he beat) John.''' " I love her better than (I love) thee.'' 

There is a remarkable exception to this rule ; as , " that is Napoleon, than 
whom no more accomplished general is mentioned in history." The gram- 



SYNTAX. 121 

matical construction of the sentence would be as follows : '' That is Na- 
poleon ; and, than he, no more accomplished general is mentioned in his- 
tory." The poets, however, have commended the exception to good use ; 
and so it will maintain its position. 

Verbs should generally agree in mood when compared ; thus, 

*' I can read better than (I can) write." 

It would, however, not be ungrammatical to say, "I can read better 
than he reads." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

You can write better than me. 
Fow is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, nomi- 
native case to can write. 

can write . . is an irregular intransitive verb, second person, plural num- 
ber, potential mood, present tense, and agrees with you. 

better is an adverb in the comparative degree (well, better, best), 

qualifying can write. 

than is a copulative conjunction of comparison, connecting you 

and me. 

me is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, objec- 
tive case ; but as it is connected with a nominative case, and 
as it is required to be the agent of an action, it should be in 
the nominative case to the verb can write; thus, " You can 
write better than I can write." 

EXAMPLES. 

You have a very excellent sister ; I wish you were as good as her. 

Your brother has behaved very improperly ; endeavor to behave better 
than him. 

There is scarcely a person whom I respect more than thou. 

I have made some progress, indeed; but, with your opportunities, you 
should improve much faster than me. 

He may be poor ; but shall he be despised by the rich, when he is as 
good as them ? 

The pronoun it is never used emphatically ; when a compa- 
rison is instituted which requires emphasis, the demonstrative, 
this or thatf is substituted. 

It is a remarkable word in the language, and is made to represent 
almost any kind of idea, and sometimes none: ^^it rains;" "zY snows." 
Sometimes it is indefinite; as, *'2i is a year since I saw him." Some- 
times it is the representative of an extended idea: ^'it is easy to see that 
you do not like the work." 

L 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the above examples, it is to be parsed as a pro7ioun, in the usual way. 
In the last example, it seems to have the same pronominal relation to an 
accompanying sentence, which the conjunction that has. 

"/if is better/or John to remain and diey 

Here, it stands for the part of a sentence ("for John to remain and die"). 

" He told John that he should remain and die.^^ 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

This cloth is very fine, but I think the other piece is stronger than it. 
[t is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, nomi- 
native to is, understood: "Is stronger than it is." But as 
there are emphasis and comparison implied in the sentence, 
the demonstrative this should be used : "Is stronger than 
this (piece)." 

EXAMPLES. 

This orange is indeed sweet ; but we have some at home much sweeter 
than it. 

I very much prefer this piece of cloth to that, although that is wider 
than it. 

RULE XII. 

COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

When what has been used as a compound pronoun, neither 
of its component parts (that or those which) should be repeated 
in the same sentence ; thus, 

^^What an anchor is to a ship in a perilous storm, (that) is the hope of 
future happiness to the soul." 

Expletives and redundant terms of every kind should be avoided, as 
they weaken a sentence. 

FALSE S Y NTAX. 

What thou seekest, that thou shalt find. 

llliat is a compound pronoun, composed of that and which; that 

relates to a word understood (perhaps thing, or happiness) ; 
the word understood is in the objective case, and governed 
by seekest. 

that (following seekest) is redundant, as it has been already ex- 
pressed in one of the components of what. "What thou 
seekest, thou shalt find." 



SYNTAX. 



123 



EXAMPLES. 

What I gave unto thee, in the day of thy prosperity, that will I require 
at thy hand. 

What thou givest the poor man, when he cries unto thee, that, in thy 
hour of adversity, will the Lord repay. 

He may possibly assist you in this instance, though he can never be 
able to render you any lasting service. 

What gives to youth its pallid hue of age, 
That gives to age its half supporting crutch. 

What is that boy's name there ? 

This strange creature was continually before us, as if she possessed the 
gift of ubiquity and omnipresence. 

IVhat is used in exclamatory, as well as in interrogatory sentences. 
For example : 

''What a lovely day!" '* What day is this?" 

" What a tall tree that is !" '' What tree is that which is so tall ?" 

In the exclamatory sentences, what is to be regarded as an adjective. 
So, also, the adverb kow, where it denotes quality or amount, may, in like 
manner, be used in exclam.atory sentences : 

" How good is God !" " How very warm it is !" 

RULE XHL 

ELLIPSIS. 

Where the governing or agreeing secondaries of pronouns 
are in ellipsis (that is, are omitted in the sentence, but under- 
stood), care should be taken to use the right case ; thus, 

**Who called on you? ile whom you mentioned (called)." "Who 
spoke ? I (spoke)." " I am as old as he (is)." 

PARSING. 

Who told him that story ? {Ans.) I. 

Who is an interrogative pronoun (for persons), third person, singu- 
lar number, nominative case to the verb told. 

told is an irregular transitive verb, third person, singular number, 

indicative mood, past tense, and agrees with who. 

Um is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, objec- 
tive case, and governed by the preposition to, understood: 
"Who told that story to him ?" 

that is a demonstrative adjective, qualifying story. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

story is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the verb told, 

I is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nomi- 
native case to the verb told, understood: "I told him." 

In the following examples, let the scholar supply the vi^ords wantmg, 
or the ellipses: "Wh goes there? A friend." "Who asks for 
me? He." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who told you that story? {Ans.) Him. 
him is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, objective case ; but it is evident that the sense 
of the ansvi^er is, "iTe told me the story." The pronoun 
should therefore be he, in the nominative case to the verb 
told. 

EXAMPLES. 

Who spoke first ? {Ans.) Me. 

How much older are you than him ? 

I am older than my brother, and quite as tall as him. 

None felt so well, the tyrant knew, 
As her he loved, and him he slew. 

RULE XIV. 

CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative pronouns are of a conjunctive character. Their 
place should not be supplied with personal pronouns, which are 
not conjunctive ; nor should the explanatory sentence, of which 
they form a part, be united to the principal sentence by a copu- 
lative conjunction. 

The following is a correct example of the use of the relative : * ' He 
represented himself to be a surgeon, who assisted the general." Who is 
a relative pronoun, standing i'or surgeon, and,, in its conjunctive character, 
connecting the explanatory sentence, ^^who assisted the general, ^^ with the 
declaratory sentence, ^^He represented himself to he a surgeon.''^ 

In the subjoined sentence, the conjunction and is correctly used : *' He 
represented himself to be a surgeon, who assisted the general, and aided 
the medical staff";" because the sentence, ^^ aided the medical staff, ^^ is also 
explanatory, and is connected with the other explanatory part of the sen 
tence, ^^ who assisted the general.^' 



SYNTAX. 125 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He employed Robbins, the auctioneer, and who is at the head of his 

profession. 

auctioneer . is a noun common, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, objective case, and is put in apposition with Bobbins: 
it is used in explanation of Bobbins. If a pronoun had been 
ufeed in apposition, instead of a noun, the correspondence of 
the case would have been more observable : "He employed 
Robbins, him who is an auctioneer." 

and is a copulative conjunction, used to connect the declarative 

sentence, " He employed Robbins, the auctioneer," with the 
explanatory sentence, " who is at the head of his profession." 
It is, therefore, incorrect, because the conjunction and is not 
required to connect the declarative with the explanatory sen- 
tence ; that office is performed by the relative pronoun whoj 
which is also conjunctive. 

who is a relative pronoun, standing for Bobbins; it is in the third 

person, singular number, and agrees in number and person 
with its antecedent, Bobbins; it is in the nominative case to 
the verb is. [It is not required that the relative pronoun 
should agree in case with its antecedent.] 

EXAMP LES. 

Dr. Arbuthnot, and who is a member of the Philosophical Society, has 
written a work on physiology. 

He called on the celebrated Paley, the archdeacon, and who is the 
author of a treatise on moral philosophy. 



RULE XV. 

STYLE. 

The form of the verb and the pronouns (thou, thee, thy and 
thine), which are expressive of the solemn style, should never give 
place to correspondent words in the familiar style ; nor should 
they be introduced into a sentence to supply the place of words 
of the familiar style ; as, 

"TAow art he who hast supported us from infancy ; yet man remember 
eth not thy works, and hath no fear of thy wonder." 
*^Thy right hand hath supported us." 

* Proud man, thou shouldst not in thy grave repine ; 
This is my dwelling, and the next is thine.'''' 
11* L2 



126 ENGLISH GR-AMMAR. 

FALSESYNTAX. 

Thy hand hath been raised against thy brother, who loves you sincerely 
In this sentence, thy and you, as pronouns, refer to one person ; and as 
the style is solemn, you should give place to thee. The verbs should also 
be in the same style : hath heen is solemn, but loves is familiar. The sen- 
tence should, therefore, stand thus : ''Thy hand hath been raised against 
thy brother, who loveth thee sincerely." 

EXAMPLES. 

He loveth charity in others, and praiseth beneficence in his neighbor ; 
yet he exercises none of those virtues himself, which please him so much 
in other people. 

When thought brings to mind thy once happy state, 

Those pleasures so full in thy view ; 
When with anticipation thy heart was elate — 

I sigh ; but 'tis only for you. 

RULE XVI. 

CASE. 

When two sentences, containing different moods or tenses of 
the verb, are connected by the conjunctions and or hut^ the 
nominative case to the latter is frequently omitted ; thus, 

"He has spent his patrimony, and is now dependent on his relations." 
But, when a part of a sentence comes between the two verbs, the 
nominative case should be repeated, particularly when the sen- 
tence changes from negative to affirmative, or from affirmative 
to negative ; thus, 

**He writes elegantly ; hut, owing to the negligence of his teachers, he is 
not able to spell his own name." 
It is necessary that words connected by conjunctions should be in the 
same class; that is, they should not be nouns and participles, or nouns 
and verbs, or verbs and participles ; thus, "Tb laugh at misfortunes, and 
to deride the afflicted." 

FALSE S Y NTAX. 

He has condescended to inform us of his clan; but, whatever may be his 
motive for concealment, is absolutely silent in regard to himself. 
Not correct, because the last part of the sentence is at so great a dis- 
tance from the conjunction lut, by which it is connected with the first 
clause of the sentence, that the sense is deficient, or doubtful, without a 
pronoun before is; thus, "7/e is obstinately silent in regard to himself." 



SYNTAX. 127 

EXAMPLES. 

He is happy in the company of his friends; but, from some secret cause 
rarely indulges in the luxury of the social fireside. 

To associate with men of higher callings, and lending his influence to 
the opposite council, formed a part of his newly assumed duties. 

RULE XVII. 

CASE. 

The substantive verb only connects its subject with that which 

is declared of it ; the noun or pronoun, therefore, which follows 

it in connection, must be in the same case in which the subject 

is ; thus, 

'* It is /of whom you speak." 

It must be, " She that was there." The participle for this verb 
also requires a similar case ; thus, 

* John was suspected of hei?ig he who committed the fault." 

PARSING. 

He is the man who was engaged to furnish the room. 

He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, nominative case to the verb is. 

is is the substantive verb, third person, singular number, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and agrees with its nominative, he. 

the is a definite article, limiting man. 

man ...... is a noun common, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender (the substantive verb, and all other intransitive verbs, 
are without the power of governing or affecting an object) ; 
man is, therefore, in the nominative case after the verb is. 

who is a relative pronoun, having man for its antecedent; in the 

third person, singular number, nominative case to the verb 
was. 

was is the substantive verb, third person, singular number, indi- 
cative mood, past tense, and agrees with its nominative, who. 

to furnish . . is a transitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present tense, 
governed by was. [The infinitive can not have any nomina- 
tive case, and is consequently without number and person. 
Any verb in the language immediately preceded by to, is in 
the infinitive mood ; furnish is, itself, a verb, without any 
relation to manner or time ; and to, alone, is a mere particle : 
but when the two words are connected, they form a verb in 
the infinitive mood — to love, to sing, to talk.] 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the is a definite article, limiting room. 

room is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the transitive verb 

to furnish. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is the person who tried to borrow money. 

That man is not our friend who tries to injure us. 

He is the father of the man who endeavored to defeat me. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

We had fondly hoped that it was him for whom we had looked. 

In this sentence, was is the substantive verb, agreeing with its nomina- 
tive, it. 

It is a rule of language that the substantive verb, and all verbs intran- 
sitive in their nature (like become, &c.), shall be preceded and followed by 
the same case (and this, if the verb is not in the infinitive mood, must be 
the nominative case) ; him should therefore be he. 

EXAMPLES. 

No words could induce her to conceal herself, although it was known 
that it was her who had perpetrated the deed. 

If it should prove that it was him who wrote the book, no mercy could 
be expected. 

You have nothing to fear, it is only me. 

He found it to be he who was sick. 

He was suspected of being him who had robbed the mail. 

RULE XVIII. 

CASE. 

Nouns or pronouns, governed by verbs, participles, or prepo- 
sitions, should be in the objective case ; thus, 
** He detected him ;*' *' In detecting him ;" ** I received tbem from him.'* 

It is a general rule of composition, that no preposition shall follow its 
primary ; thus, "He is a gentleman whom 1 am much pleased with;'''' "He 
is the person whom I am looking/or," &c. From a violation of this rule, 
we are frequently led to another error of a more serious nature ; that of 
using the nominative form of the pronoun, instead of the objective, in 
similar phrases ; thus, "You are not the man who I took you /or." These 
sentences should stand thus: "He is the gentleman with whom," &c. 
"He is the person for whom," &-c. "You are not the man for whom I 
took you." 

The pronoun that is occasionally governed by the preposition after it, 
when the pronouns which or whom, for which it stands, would not admit 



SYNTAX. ]29 

of that arrangement. In colloquial style, the pronoun is frequently used 
before the preposition, in violation of the rule ; but, in formal composition, 
it is not allowable. 

Care should also be taken that an intransitive verb is not used instead 
of a transitive; as, Hay (the bricks), for I lie down; I raise (the house), 
for I rise; I sit down, for I set (the chair) down. 

Nouns and pronouns forming an address should be in the nominative 

case; thus, 

*' Oh ! thou J the nymph with placid eye." 

** Father! to thee I call — to thee alone." 

Following an interjection, the personal pronoun in the first person is put 
into the objective ease ; thus, 

'*Ah, me ! me miserable !" 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who do you love ? 

Who is a relative pronoun, used interrogatively ; it is the object 

of the verb do love, and should, therefore, be in the objective 
case (nominative, wjAo— objective, whom): "Whom do you 
love ?" Whom is in the objective case, governed by the verb 
do love. 

do love .... is a regular transitive verb, second person, plural number, 
indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with you. 

you is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, nomi- 
native case to do love. 

EXAMPLES. 

They who were idle, he employed. 

Between you and I, they have not much to expect. 

The man who was endeavoring to deceive ye. 

They w^ho you were seeking are found. 

He that obeys, I will reward. 

He will lay in his tent until the winter. 

He will rise you up from the floor. 

Do not set on that chair. 



RULE XIX. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

The possessive case is said to be governed by the noun ex- 
pressing the thing possessed ; as, 

^^His home." ' ^ His father^ s house.'' 

9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the last example, his is a pronoun in the possessive case, governed by 
father'' s; and father^ s is a noun in the possessive case, governed by house. 

When two possessive cases are connected by a conjunction, it is cus- 
tomary to omit the sign of the possessive in the first; as, "John and 
William's book." " He lives north of Mason and Dixon's line." 

The possessive case admits of qualification and limitation, like the other 
cases. 

There are some sentences in w^hich the sign of the possessive is omit- 
ted, and there are others in which it is annexed to the noun: *' For David 
my servant's sake;" David is in the possessive case. "The king of 
England's letter;" here, England is a noun, in the objective case, and 
the possessive signs ('s) belong to king. 

Such sentences, though tolerated on account of respectable authors, 
should be avoided by correct grammarians ; they should be thus ex- 
pressed: "For the sake of David, my servant;" " The letter of the king 
of England." 

The possessive case maybe governed by a participle : ^' By the boy's 
paying attention to the lesson." The words paying attention, collectively, 
seem to be the primary of 5o2/'5. 

When one possessive case is used to explain another, or is placed in 
apposition, the possessive sign is applied to the last only ; as, "In William 
the Conqueror^ s reign." Here, William is a noun proper, third person, 
singular number, masculine gender, possessive case, governed by reign, 
CoJiqueror is a noun common, third person, singular number, possessive 
case, and put in apposition with William. It would be better to say, " In 
the reign of William the Conqueror." 

There is one use of the possessive which seems to leave it without a 
governing noun: "An anecdote of Joe Miller's." This means one of Joe 
Miller's anecdotes ; and the possessive is governed by anecdotes, under- 
stood. "An anecdote of Joe Miller" means an anecdote about, or con 
cerning Joe Miller. 



ADJECTIVES. 

RULE XX. 

Adjectives used to express number, should always agree with 
the nouns they qualify; thus, "I have known him these ten 
years," and not this ten years. 

The adjective many is used to qualify a singular noun, when it is imme- 
diately followed by the indefinite article; thus, "With many a wevny 
step, and ma?iy a groan." 



SYNTAX. 131 

When more than one adjective is used to qualify a noun, that which is 
the principal, or which represents the quality or circumstance most im- 
portant in the mind of the speaker or writer, should be placed next to a 
noun. For example : 

*' The poor old man is without the comforts of age." 
*' The oldi poor man is without the usual activity of poverty." 
In the first sentence, it is evident that it is the age of the man that con- 
stitutes the leading idea ; in the second, it is the poverty. 

It is a vulgarism of conversation, not often of writing, to use the pronoun 
for the adjective ; thus, *' I want them books," instead of, '* I want those 
books." 

Junior, senior, superior and inferior, though possessing the characteris- 
tics of the comparative degree in other languages, are nevertheless not to 
be so regarded in the English language. The correspondent or correlative 
of the comparative degree is than — "He is better than his partner;" and 
the correlative or correspondent of the superlative is of — " He is the best 
of all the partners." These words {than and of) do not correspond with 
the above cited adjectives; their ordinary correspondent is to — "Are far 
mferior to thy name." The same remarks apply io former and latter. 

Of the Superlative Degree, 

It is an error to suppose that every adjective qualified by the adverb 
most is in the superlative degree. The address and title of an archbishop 
is, "most reverend;" we say of the Deity, " most high God;" of a judge, 
"most worshipful judge." These denote a grade of rank, but not a com- 
parison of quality. 

"A man oimost exalted virtue :" this only shows a high state of virtue, 
and it is not intended to say that he is "a man of the most exalted of all 
virtue." 

" She really sings most enchantingly," is a mere extravagance of speech, 
in which the superlative sign of the adverb {most) does not convey its 
superlative character to the adverb enchantingly. 

" She is a most fascinating woman." Here, the adverb most is in the 
superlative degree ; but the adjective fascinating is not made superlative 
thereby; the assertion is positive. It might be said, "She is a most 
fascinating woman, but not so fascinating as her sister." The superlative 
degree would be thus expressed : " The sisters are all fascinating women, 
but she is the most fascinating of all of them." 

It is v/ith these sentences as with others ; the pupil must understand 
fully the meaning, before he undertakes to parse them. 

FARTHER REMARKS. 

All may qualify a plural noun of number, and a singular noun of quan- 
tity : "J.ZZ the men were employed to sell all the wheat." 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

*' The door was painted greeny Green, in this sentence, is an adjec« 
live qualifying door, as much as if it had been said, "the door was green.'* 
** I am made happy ;" that is, I am happy. 

This and these, and that and those, sometimes take the place o^ former 
and latter. That and those represent /ormer as singular or plural ; and this 
and these stand for latter, singular or plural. 

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

Then palaces and lofty domes arose ; 
These for devotion, and for pleasure those. 

Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided : more better, 
most happiest. 

Adjectives of every degree admit of qualification ; positive, very good; 
comparative, much tetter. The superlative does not generally have so 
direct a qualification: Much the greatest ; hy far the best; immeasurably 
the greatest. 

Some adjectives do not admit of comparison. Perfect needs not be 
compared, because that which is perfect can not be more so ; and that 
which is less than perfect, is not perfect. Yet the poets do apply words 
of comparison to such adjectives; as, *'the most perfect beauty." And 
things are declared to be rounder, and roundest, which indeed are only 
nearer round than some other, or the nearest round of all. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I have known him this six years. 
this ...... is a demonstrative adjective, qualifying years; but as years 

is plural, and this singular, this is incorrect ; it should be, 

*' these six years." 
years is a noun of time, third person, plural number, objective 

case, and governed by the preposition /or, understood. *'I 

have known him for these six years." 

EXAMPLES. 

He is pleased with these kind of attentions, and seeks every opportu- 
nity to repay them. 

A public sale of carriages and horses will be held at the Camel tavern, 
every Wednesdays and Fridays. 

This man was seven foot in height. 

Gold is, if not the heaviest, certainly the most purest, of all the metals. 



SYNTAX. 133 

VERBS. 

RULE XXI. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and 
person; thus, 

*' The boy is industrious ; the girls are attentive." 
*' The man who was expected is sick." 
*' The men who were expected are sick." 

When the verb has two nominative cases, there is sometimes a diffi- 
culty in discovermg the nominative with which it is to agree. The learner 
should remember that the nominative with which a verb is to agree, is 
that of which the sense of the verb is declared. 

In the sentence, "His meat was locusts," the verb was agrees with 
meat, because that was the subject of conversation. But if it were the 
intention to make locusts the subject of conversation, then the sentence 
would be, "Locusts were John's meat." "Those curious animals are 
eaten in the East ; and the Bible informs us that locusts were the food of 
John." 

In interrogative phrases, it is customary for the agent, the real nomina- 
tive, that with which the verb must agree, to follow the verb: "What 
arewe?" "Whoareyou?" "Whatawl?" In these cases, the inter- 
rogative pronouns are said to be in the nominative case, after the verb. 
" Thou art the ma?i:" here, man is nominative after the verb art. 

The comparative conjunction as does not unite the nominative cases, like 
the continuing copulative conjunction and. We say, " John and his father 
ivere present;" but we cannot say, "John, as well as his father, were 
present." The last example may be thus expressed : " John was present, 
as well as (was) his father." 

PARSING. 

The boy is industrious. 

The is a definite article, limiting hoy. 

hoy is a noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, 

nominative case to is. 

is is a verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, sin- 
gular number (because hoy, which is its nominative case, is 
of the same person and number; if it had been hoys, the 
ward must have been are; this is agreement). 

FALSE S YNT AX. 

The joys of youth has failed. 

The is a definite article, limiting joys. 

joys is a noun common, third person, plural number, nominative 

case to has failed. 

M 



t34 ENGLISH G R A M M A R^. 

qJ is a preposition, governing youth. 

youth is a noun common, objective case, governed by of. 

has failed . . is a regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present ante- 
rior tense ; it is in the third person, singular number ; it 
should be, have failed, in order to agree withjoi/s, in the plu- 
ral number, according to the rule. 

EXAMPLES . 

The hopes of the hypocrite has been cut off, and the excellence of the 
good man exalted. 

The king of England, with the house of lords, compose the ruling 
pov^^er of the kingdom. 

The emperor, as well as his officers, were there. 

In him were blended true dignity of character with perfect suavity of 
manners. 

Nothing but the grossest pleasures give him enjoyment. 

There is, in religion, more peace in believing, and more comfort in 
hoping, than is in all that earthly pleasure can impart. 

How often is the imaginations deceived in that which promised with the 
greatest appearance of certainty. 

RULE XXII. 

TENSE. 

The anterior tenses are formed by prefixing their signs to the 
perfect participle of verbs. Care should be taken, in the use of 
an irregular verb, neither to apply the auxiliaries to the past 
tense ; thus, " Charles has wrote^'' (written) ; nor to use the per- 
fect participle instead of the past tense ; thus, " He hegun the 
work." 

The verb does not always come next to its nominative case ; and, when 
formed of two words, those do not always come together. 

PARSING. 

The man w^ho has in every instance deceived us, is not to be trusted. 

The is a definite article, limiting man. 

man is a noun common, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender, nominative case to the verb is. [The intermediate 

sentence, " Who has in every instance deceived us," is only 

used to explain the man.] 
who is a relative pronoun, having ma7i for its antecedent; in the 

third person, singular number, nominative case to the verb 

has deceived. 



SYNTAX. 135 

has deceived is a verb, third person, singular number, indicative mood, 
present anterior tense, and agrees with its nominative, who. 
[The words of the verb, when they are separated, should be 
parsed together, when the scholar comes to the first word.] 

in is a preposition, governing instance. 

every is a distributive pronominal adjective, qualifying instance. 

instance ... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, objective case, and governed by the preposition in. 

us is a personal pronoun, first person, plural number, objective 

case, and governed by has deceived. 

is is the substantive verb, third person, singular number, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and agrees with its nominative. 
man (because it says, the man is). 

not is a negative adverb (negative, because it is used to negate 

or destroy the affirmative power of is), qualifying is. 

to he trusted is a verb in the infinitive mood, passive voice, anterior tense. 
It is without number and person, because it has no nomina- 
tive case ; it is from the active verb trust. 

He who, by a show of kindness, leads us to believe that he is our friend, 
will, at some other time, have the power of showing us that we have 
been too hasty in our confidence. 
He is the nominative to will have; who is the nominative to leads; that 

is an explanatory conjunction. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Charles has wrote a letter to his parents. 

Charles ... is a noun proper, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, nominative case to has wrote. 

has wrote . . is an irregular (write, wrote, written) intransitive verb, third 
person, singular number, indicative mood, present anterior 
(or perfect) tense ; but as this case (in the third person) is 
formed by prefixing has to the past participle, and as the past 
participle is written, it follows that the verb is wrong; it 
should be has written; it agrees with Charles. 

EXAMPLES. 

He seen hife father twice to-day. 

He begun to ride about ten o'clock, and had not rode ten miles at noon. 

Do not keep me longer in suspense, but remember you have not yet 
spoke of my father. 

He had scarcely began his discourse, when the murmurs of the audience 
announced the king's arrival. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rapt into future times, a bard begun, 

A virgin shall conceive-— a virgin bear a son. 

A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, 

And the monks finish' d what the Goths begun. 



RULE XXIII. 

TENSE. 

When verbs and other parts of speech, or phrases, are used 
which have a relation in point of time, particular attention 
should be paid to the corresponding tenses of the verb ; thus, 

*'I have been acquainted with him longer than you ?i)ere with his late 

brother." 
Here, have been expresses a time, flowing on from some given date (the 
commencement of the acquaintance) to another (i. e., the time of speak- 
ing) : both the subject and predicate {I and him) are likewise in existence ; 
this is, therefore, a present anterior tense. Were, on the contrary, in the 
past tense, expresses a time indefinitely finished; and one person alluded 
to in that clause of the sentence is dead ; yet, because the comparison is 
instituted only in relation to the duration of the two times, the sentence 
is correct, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
I know that person for ten years. 

know is an irregular transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense ; 

but it is used to express a time commencing ten years before 
the present time, and flowing on without interruption to the 
time made present by the use of the sentence ; the tense, 
therefore, answers to the description of the present anterior 
or perfect tense, and should be, "I have known." 

EXAMPLES. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue with me 
now three days. 

When they listened to his discourse, they retired to meditate on his 
doctrines. 

It required so much care, that I thought I should have lost my treasure 
for want of attention. 

I always intended to have repaid his virtues according to their real 
merits. 

In relieving your distress, we have done no more than our duty directed 
us to have done. 

We need not give many examples now, as this rule was already 
explained. 



SYNTAX. 137 

RULE XXIV. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

In the use of the subjunctive mood, a particular attention 
should be paid to the meaning of the sentence, in order to dis- 
tinguish between the hypothetical and simply conditional form ; 
thus, 

Simply conditional.— ''You. acknowledge that he is your superior ; if he 
is, why do you not respect him?" 

Hypothetical. — ''He is not my superior now; and, though \iQ were, T 
should scarcely respect him." 

PARSING. 

He would have been sick, had I not helped him. 

He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mas 

culine gender, nominative case to would have been. 

would have been is a substantive verb, third person, singular number, po- 
tential mood, past anterior tense, and agrees with its 
nominative, he. 

sick is a common adjective, declared of 7ie. 

had helped ... ^ is a regular transitive verb, first person, singular number, 
subjunctive mood, indicative (or simply conditional) form, 
past anterior tense, and agrees with its nominative, L 
[The parts of the verbs are separated, as had helped, on 
account of the absence of the conditional conjunction, if.] 

I is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, no 

minative case to the verb had helped. 

not is a negative adverb, qualifying had helped. 

him is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 

masculine gender, objective case, and governed by the 
transitive verb had helped. 

The order of time, in the two verbs in the above sentence, does not 
agree with that usually assigned to past anterior tenses ; this, however, 
may be fully explained by referring to the observations on the potential 
and subjunctive moods. 

Publish it not in the streets of Askalon, lest the daughters of the Philis- 

tines rejoice. 
Publish ... is a verb; it implies a request, or direction, and is conse 
quently in the imperative mood ; present tense, second per 
son, plural number, and agrees with you, understood ; thus 
" do you not publish." 
12* M2 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, objec- 
tive case, and governed by the verb publish. 

not is a negative adverb, quaMiy'mg publish. 

in is a preposition, governing streets. 

the < is a definite article, limiting streets. 

streets is a noun common, third person, plural number, objective 

case, and governed by the preposition in. 

of is a preposition, governing Askalon. 

AsJcalon ... is a noun, third person, singular number, objective case, and 
governed by the preposition of. 

lest is an adverb, qualifying rejoice. 

the is a definite article, limiting daughters. 

daughters , . is a noun, third person, plural number, feminine gender, 
nominative case to rejoice. 

of is a preposition, governing Philistines. 

the is a definite article, limiting Philisti?ies. 

Philistines . is a noun, third person, plural number, objective case, and 
governed by the preposition of. 

rejoice .... is .a verb, third person, plural number, subjunctive mood 
(.should rejoice), past tense, and agrees with daughters. 

By referring to the observations on the potential and subjunctive moods, 
this verb {rejoice) will be found to be in the conjunctive form, time poste 
rior to the present verb publish. 

I will not deny him, lest he be angry. 

I will give him such things as are used in his country, lest he grow 
weary. 

FALSE S Y NTA X. 

He is dead, if I be correct. 

He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, nominative case to is. 

is is the substantive verb, third person, singular number, indi- 
cative mood, present tense, and agrees with its nominative, he. 

dead is a common adjective, declared oihe. 

if is a conditional conjunction, used to connect the two parts of 

the compared sentence, requiring then to correspond with it. 

I is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case to be. 

he when used with the conjunction if, is connected with some 

auxiliary, expressed or understood ; in this form, should is 
implied, which would make the sentence hypothetical: this 
is evidently not the sense intended; the verb should, there- 
fore, be am, as implying a simple condition. It is in the 
subjunctive mood, present tense, and agrees with /, in the 
first person singular. 



SYNTAX. 139 

correct .... is an adjective, declared of" 1 (it is the predicate): *'He is 
dead, if I am correct." 

EXAMPLES. 

Whether that be his intention or not, it is evident that he w^ish^ others 
to believe it. 

This is not the person instructed to receive the charge; and, though he 
is, time has made such havoc with his face, that v^e should be censurable 
in trusting to his person. 

I knov^ not whether it be a native principle, or an acquired habit ; but 
It has certainly become a rule of conduct. 

RULE XXV. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

No word can be admitted between a verb in the infinitive 
mood, and its accompanying particle, to ; thus, 
"He expected to easily acquit himself." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He believed that he was destined to sooner or later reform the abuses of 

mankind. 
In this sentence, the word to is in the wrong position; it should be, 
'' destined sooner or later to reform the abuses." 

EXAMPLES. 

We ought not to meanly palm our own dogmas upon mankind as the 
opinions of the fathers. 

In our intercourse with mankind, we should try to not offend those 
whose belief is opposed to ours, lest we should give them reason to not 
treat our opinions with respect. 

RULE XXVI. 

INFINITIVE 3I00D. 

A verb in the infinitive mood should be in the present tense, 

when governed by a verb expressing hope, desire, expectation, 

&c. ; thus, 

*' I hoped to go." ** I expected to see him." 

A verb in the infinitive mood, or the whole or part of a sentence, may 
be nominative to a verb, or the antecedent of a pronoun ; thus, " To give 
alms for the act alone, is to imitate the father of virtues." "It is sweet 
to die for our country." 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FATiSESYNTAX. 

He is expected to have died. 

He , is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, nominative case to the verb expected, 

expected . . . is a regular (expect, expected, expected) intransitive verb, 
third person, singular number, indicative mood, past tense, 
and agrees w^ith he. 

to have died is a regular (die, died, died) intransitive verb, infinitive mood, 
anterior tense ; but as this tense of the verb would make the 
action of dying anterior to, or before that expressed by ex- 
pected, it follov^s, that it is in the wrong tense ; it should be, 
to die, according to the rule ; it is governed by expected: " He 
expected to die." 

EXAMPLES. 

He hoped, indeed, to have deceived his friends ; but he was soon 
detected. 

He found a new path, and expected to have gained his object more easily. 

What said the apostle ? he desired to have seen God and be at peace. 

He is now seeking, with diligence and industry, what he formerly hoped 
to have obtained without exertion. 



RULE XXVII. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Verbs in the infinitive mood are governed by verbs, adjectives, 
participles, and other parts of speech ; thus, 

*' John tries TO learn." ** The boy is too you7ig to head.'* 

** He is tryijig to write." " I will compel you to work." 

If the infinitive verb should be governed by either of the following 
verbs in the active voice, the usual sign, to, is to be omitted, viz., make 
(compel), need, feel, see, bid, dare (to have courage), hear, let, have (to 
require), help ; thus, " John made Willi'dm learn his lesson;" "We can 
see the birds fly ;" *' I would have you read well." 

Sometimes have and malte dispense with the whole of the verb he in 
the infinitive. For example, ** I would have him (to be) a good scholar." 
"I would make him a good scholar." ''I would cause him to he a good 
scholar." 

The near approach of the infinitive mood to a noun, frequently renders 
its dependence uncertain, or perhaps relieves it so far from its verbal state, 
as to leave it without this kind of dependence ; thus, "It is easy to de- 
ceive such a man;" i. e., To deceive such a man is easy. " It would be 
better to try him in some other way." 



SYNTAX. 141 

The infinitive mood retains its sign, to, when governed by verbs in the 
passive voice : *' I was made {compelled) to learn my lesson." 

Verbs in the infinitive mood are frequently subjects or nominatives of 
finite verbs : ^'To err, is human — to forgive, divine ;" which is equivalent 
to "It is human to err — it is divine to forgive." So, also, the infinitive 
verb seems sometimes to be the objective case, as in the sentence, "I 
love to read!'"' 

Formerly, the verb in the infinitive mood was governed by the preposi- 
tion/or: " What went ye out for to seeV But now this has become 
obsolete ; though it is evident that there was a great propriety in the 
usage. For example, with reference to nouns : 

Tor what are you looking ? Ans. I am looking for a book. 

For whom are you weeping ? Ans, I am weeping for my sister. 

EXAMPLES OF PARTICIPLES. 

Why or for what is he punished ? Ans. For having neglected his lesson. 
For neglecting his lessons every day. 

EXAMPLES OF THE INFINITIVE VERB. 

For what purpose do you keep so many horses ? Ans. For to plough 
the new ground. 

jpor what or why do you dress so gaudily ? Ans. I dress /or to be seen 
of men. 

In these examples, it will be seen that the use of /or, in the inquiry, 
seems to suggest the use of the same word in the answer ; and such a us© 
of it obtains in the French language. The rule, however, is absolute, 

^ ^ The preposition FOR must not he placed in connection with the verb i?i the 

INFINITIVE MOOD." 

PARSING. 
Thou canst not make Charles sing. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, second person, singular number, nomi- 
native case to the verb canst make. 

canst make . is a transitive verb, second person, singular number, poten- 
tial mood, present tense, and agrees with its nominative, 
thou, 

not is a negative adverb, qualifying canst make. 

Charles ... is a noun proper, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, objective case, and governed by the transitive verb 
canst make. 

sing [appears to be declared of Charles ; yet, on examining the 

sentence, it will be found that Charles is the object of the 
verb, and, therefore, can not be in the nominative case to 
sing. The verb make, in this sentence, does not signify to 
create, but only compel; then, if we use compel, instead of 
make, we have the proper sense, and ascertain the true class 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

oishig; thus, "lean not compel Charles to sing.'* This con- 
veys the same meaning ; but the use of compel, instead of 
make, brings in the word to, before sing.l Sing, then, is a 
verb in the infinitive mood, present tense, without its usual 
sign, to, and governed by can make. 
Make (compel), need, feel, hid, dare (to have courage), hear, let, help, 
have, governing the verb in the infinitive mood, active voice, usually, 
require the sign (to) to be omitted ; thus, " I will make you cry, or I will 
compel you to cry ;" ''I need not cry {to cry) ;" ''I bid you be silent (I 
command you to be silent);" ''I dare address him (I have courage to 
address him) ;" "I would have him sing (I would require of him to sing) ;" 
** I will let you read (I will permit you to read)." 

The following form of a sentence is very much used, both in books and 
conversation: '' Let me see," '' Let me go," *' Let him come," " Let us 
ride," "Let them walk," "Let Charles be." The verb let, in each of 
these sentences, is in the imperative mood, present tense, agreeing with 
thoif,, understood, if in the singular number; as, "Do thou let me go;" 
but, if the sentence is addressed to more than one, then let is in the plural 
number, agreeing with you, understood ; as, " Do you let me go." 

The pronouns me, him, us, and them, and the noun Charles, are in the 
objective case ; and each is governed by the verb let, immediately before 
it. The verbs see, go, come, ride, walk, and be, are all in the infinitive 
mood, without the usual sign (to), and each is governed by the verb letj 
before it. 

EXAMPLES. 

I will let you write a letter. I dare not engage. 

I will make him behave properly. I will let him go. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

We ought not in general expect too much from children. 
IVe is a personal pronoun, first person, plural number, nomina- 
tive case to the verb ought. 

ought is a defective verb, present tense, agreeing with its nomina- 
tive, we. 

not is a negative adverb, qualifying ought. 

expect is a verb, infinitive mood, present tense, and should have the 

sign to before it. 

too is an adverb, qualifying much. 

much is an adjective, qualifying some noun (perhaps obedience) 

understood. 

from is a preposition, governing children. 

children ... is a noun, third person, plural number, objective case, go- 
verned by the preposition/rom; " from children" is the ^ne- 
dic^te of expect. " We ought not in general to expect too 
much obedience from children.' ' 



SYNTAX. 143 

EXAMPLES. 

It is better, indeed, live on a little, than outlive a great deal. 

Amelia felt the force of these remarks, and determined to try and follow 
the directions that he had given. 

That news will make their hearts to dance with joy. 

His passions made him to err, but his reason bade him to repent. 

You hardly need to be informed of his misfortunes, for you can hear 
him every moment to deplore them. 

I would not have you to lament, at every misfortune, as if you dared 
not to hope for relief. 

They acted with so much reserve, that many persons suspected them 
to be sincere. 

The fear to offend, and the hope to please, too often lead us from the 
plain track of duty. 

We need not wonder to see people so much opposed to his doctrine, 
when they must necessarily despise his practice. 



ADVERBS. 
RULE XXVII. 

POSITION. 

Adverbs, though of do governing nature, require a particular 
situation, in order to express the meaning distinctly, and to give 
a proper strength to the sentence, 

A change of position in almost any of the secondary parts of speech, 
will frequently make a material alteration in the sense, without substitut- 
ing any other words. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

How they eagerly try to satisfy unreal desires. 
Not correct, because the adverb eagerly, being removed from its second-' 
ary, how, weakens the sentence, and almost destroys the sense of it. It 
should be thus : '' How eagerly they try to satisfy unreal desires." 

E X AM P L ES. 

We are led too often to suspect the sincerity of other people's friend- 
ship, from the weakness of our own. 

We make a business, generally, of pleasure, rather than a pleasure of 
business. 

He offered her the cup which never the king accepted, and, therefore, 
which she refused. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We are sometimes, against the dictates of religion, perfectly engrossed, 
and overcome by the follies of sense entirely. 

It is not possible for any man continually to be at work. 

It is, perhaps, pleasing continually to see himself attended by the shouts 
of the multitude. 

RULE XXVIII. 

QUALIFYING POWER. 

Adverbs, and not adjectives, qualify verbs, participles, and 
common adjectives ; as, 

** He writes very elegantly ^ " She was singing sweetly,''^ 

'* We saw the old man walking slowly. ^^ 

Adverbs sometimes affect a preposhion : *' Captain Wilkes sailed nearly 
ROUND the world ;" ^^Far above the diurnal sphere ;" ^^ Nearly over the 
river." 

It is sometimes difficult to tell whether an adjective or an adverb should 
be used in a sentence: "She appears elegant ;^^ "She looks elegant.''^ 
Elegantly would be incorrect, because the quality oi the person is referred 
to. "She walks elegantly, ^^ and " She sees quickly,''^ are correct, because 
the manner of walking and seeing is alluded to. 

Sometimes a word is used merely to express existence (like the verb 
6e), with some characteristic or circumstance : " She Zies sick." When- 
ever the verb le may be used, instead of the verb that connects the adjec- 
tive with the noun, the adjective, and not the adverb, should be used. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

She runs very rapid. 

She is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, femi- 
nine gender, nominative case to runs. 

runs is an irregular (present, run; past, ran; participle, run) in- 
transitive verb, third person, singular number, indicative 
mood, present tense, and agrees with she. 

very is an adverb, qualifying rapid. 

rapid is an adjective. [As this word is used to express the manner 

of the verb runs, it should be an adverb {rapidly) qualifying 
runs; thus, " She runs very rapidly." 

EXAMPLES. 

The wheel turns so swift, that it is scarcely possible to distinguish one 
spoke from another. 

How easy is that man deceived who trusts to the dictates of an over- 
weening self-love. 

How fearful and wonderful are wc made ! 



SYNTAX. 145 

RULE XXIX. 

OF NEGATIVES. 

Two negatives in a sentence are usually equal to an affirma- 
tive, or they disturb the sense without fixing any definite mean- 
ing ; thus, " Charles is not unwell," is equal to, " Charles is 
well ;" " He could not write inelegantly." 

The words no, amen, and yes (the complete answer), involving a whole 
sentence, are said to be independent. 

Yes is denominated an adverb of afirmation. 

No is denominated an adverb oinegatioii; as, '* Will you read the les- 
son?" Answer, ^'No;''^ that is, "I will not read the lesson.'* 

**Will you parse the sentence?" Answer, ''Yes;" that is, '^Iwill 
pars-e the sentence." 

FALSE SVNTAX. 

I gave no cause for suspicion, nor shall not endeavor to avoid it. 

No is a negative adjective, qualifying cause. 

nor is a conjunction, connecting the two parts of the compound 

sentence ; nor is of the regular disjunctive character. 
not is a negative adverb, qualifying shall endeavor; it is wrong, 

as it is a second negative, distorting the sense of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nor are we to expect aid from him no more than from his father. 
I have never known, during my acquaintance with his family, no mem- 
ber of it less esteemed than he. 

RULE XXX. 

EaUIVALENTS OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs are used to express the idea of the preposition and 
novm together ; therefore, a preposition should not be used as a 
secondary to an adverb. 

There, where and here, denote the place in which an action is performed ; 
thus, " He may be found there :^^ " He rushed into the temple, where tlie 
vestals were sacrificing;" " The king lives ^cre." 

Thither, whither and hither, denote the tendency or end of an action ; 
thus, "They were in the temple; thither we also repaired:" "Come 
hither and learn wisdom." 

Whence, thence and hence, have a relation to the place of departure ; 
thus, ^'Wlience come such reports?" "We went unto Philippi, and 
thence to Troas." " They spoke the ship Hector, hence to Havana." 
10 N 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following adverbs are equal to the accompanying complements 
of a sentence. 

Now is equal to .... at this time. 

Then at that time. 

There in that place. 

Where in which or what place. 

Here , in this place. 

Thither to that place. 

Whither to which or what place. 

Hither to this place. 

Thence from those premises, or from that place. 

W^hence from which premises, or which or what place. 

Hence. from these premises, or from this place. 

Thereby by that or those means. 

.Therefrom from those premises, or that place. 

Therefore on that account. 

Therefor for that reason. 

Thereunto unto that place, or that subject. 

Whereby by which means. 

Whereunto unto that place. 

Wherefore for that or this reason. 

Hereby by this or these means. 

Wherever in whatever place. 

"J C °^ ^^^^ °^ ^^^^ account. 

As C < in the same manner. 

3 (_ at the same time. 

So in this or that manner. 

Why for what reason. 

How in what manner. 

Whithersoever to whichsoever place. 

Whenever or whensoever . . at whatever time. 

") r with which, or to which. 

Whereunto C < with what, or to what. 

J (^ unto which place. 

Whereupon on account of which, or upon that account. 

Hereunto unto which, or this place or point. 

Whereas for the reason, or on the contrary. 

Thitherward towards that place. 

Hitherward towards this place. 

Moreover besides, or in addition to all this. 

Henceforth , from this time. 

Thenceforth from that time. 

Herein in this place, or this subject. 

Therein in that place, or that subject. 

Where, whither and whence, are also generally used as interrogatives. 
At once, at length, at last, for ever, and such combinations, are usually 
considered adverbs, as they perform the office of that part of speech. 
All the other adverbs have their equivalents also, rapidly being equal 



SYNTAX. 147 

to m a rapid manner; but the common adverbs of manner are not so 
liable to misapprehension as are those noted above. 

There does not always signify in that place. It seems to be a mere intro- 
ductory of a sentence, without designating time or place ; for example, 
^^ There was a man sent from God." 

** There are no acts of pardon pass'd 
In the cold grave to which we haste.'* 

In the above quotations, there is redundant, because it would be enough 
to say, *'A man was sent from God ;" *' No acts of pardon are passed in 
the grave." In this form of expression, there seems to have nothing to do 
with place. 

*^ There will be no exercises here to-day." This use of there is not to 
be condemned ; the sentence would be abrupt without it ; it is idiomatic, 
belonging to the language especially, and is to be regarded as entirely 
correct, and to be parsed as an adverb. 

Then is not ahvays equivalent to at that time. When then is the corre- 
lative or correspondent of if, it seems not to have a relation to time : " If 
you will obey, then 1 will bring upon you that blessing." In this compound 
sentence, then seems to be equal to ^'on that condition,^^ and to be like a 
conjunction. 

Now is not always equivalent to at or in this time. It opens a sentence 
with some emphasis, and seems to be a conjunction; thus, "He went 
into Bethlehem ; now, Bethlehem was two days' journey from the place.'* 
** You assert it for a fact ; now, I should like to know the source of your 
information." 

On page 107, it is remarked that since, as an adverb of time, is a com 
mon attendant on the present tense : '^ Since I have lived here." 

Since is sometimes used for as, or because: ^' Since you will be rich, be 
also miserable." ''Since you like it, take it all." ''Since, then, I'm 
doom'd this sad reverse to prove." 

The omission oi ever, before since, as an adverb of time, is frequent, and 
injurious to the sense. For example, '' Our country has been a nation 
since 1776." This should be ever since. 

" The man has been sick since the early part of the autumn." This, 
though usually intended to represent a continued event, really only de- 
clares that, in all that time, the man may have been sick once, or oftener. 

** The man has been sick repeatedly since the early part of autumn '' 
The man has been sick ever since the early part of autumn. 

When and while differ in regard to time. When signifies at the time ; 
while, DURIN& the time ; thus, 

"When Putnam removed to Pomfret, the country was infested with 
wolves " 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

*^ While he lived in Pomfret, he was much engaged in ridding the coun- 
try of wolves." 

When introduces the anterior tenses: ^^When I had finished, I went 
home." ^^When I have finished, I go home." ^^When I shall have 
finished, I will go home." 

Whih seems to relate to the definite form of the verb : ^^ While I was 
writing, he was reading." ^^ While I was musing, the fire burned." 

Before is sometimes used incorrectly with regard to the anterior tenses : 
** I shall have finished it before you come." *' I had written that before 
you came." In both these examples, before should be when; the verbs in 
the anterior tenses, shall have finished and had written, should be shall 
finish and wrote; thus, 

** You will come at noon, when I shall have finished the work." 

** I had written that when you came." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

From whence came you? 

From is a preposition ; its sense directs it to whence; but, as prepo- 
sitions cannot refer to adverbs, and as whence of itself is equal 
to from what place, the sense is perfect without from; from 
should, therefore, be omitted. 

whence .... is an interrogative adverb of place, qualifying came. 

came is an irregular intransitive verb, second person, plural num- 
ber, indicative mood, past tense, and agrees with you. It is 
placed before the nominative case in order to ask the 
question. 

you is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, nomi- 
native case to came: " Whence came you ?" 

EXAMP LES. 

Solomon sent ships to Tarshish ; from whence, once in three years, he 
received gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks. 

The ship arrived at Lisbon, and from thence took freight for New York. 

From whence dark Patagonia sends her storms. 

No man can suppose they come here to learn, leaving, as they do, the 
very temple of science. 

It is not easy for us to imagine where he obtained them from, nor where 
he will be led by them. 

RULE XXXI. 

NON-CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Adverbs ending in /y, and others not relative or conjunctive, 
should not be used simply to connect. When they are to apply 



SYNTAX. 149 

to two sentences, they will be connected therewith by a conjunc- 
tion, or other conjunctive word ; thus, 

''He writes elegantly, who studies carefully." 
Here, though the two sentences are connected by a conjunctive pronoun 
{who), the adverb elegantly refers only to the verb writes , and the adverb 
carefully refers only to the verb studies, because neither of these adverbs 
is of a conjunctive character. But in the sentence, 

*' He writes as elegantly as you write," 
the adverb elegantly, being qualified by the conjunctive word as, has a 
relation to the verb writes and the verb write. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Immediately he came into the room, the judge informed him of his fate. 
Immediately is an adverb, not of the conjunctive kind, and yet is used to 
connect the two sentences, he came, and the judge informed; 
it is therefore incorrect. The meaning intended to be con- 
veyed is, that the judge informed him at the very moment he 
came into the room. The adverbs expressive of time in the 
positive degree are, usually, as soon as. These are more em- 
phatic and precise, with regard to time, than ''When he came 
into the room, the judge informed him;" though both are 
correct, but not exactly synonymous. 

** Directly the king was seated, Devereaux commenced." 
These two adverbs, immediately and directly, have been forced into 
conjunctive use by English writers of considerable character; but this 
use of them is a barbarism. 



PARTICIPLES. 
RULE XXXIII. 

Present or active participles have a relation to nouns, similar 
to that of a verb, by government, but not by agreement ; as, 

" We found Milton writing his treatise." 
Here, writing is a present participle ; it governs treatise, in the same 
manner that the verb write would do. 

Simple perfect participles express only the condition or effect : ' ' We 
found the treatise written.^ ^ 

The compound participles have the same characteristics as the simple 
13* N2 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

participles whence they are derived: ^ ^Having written the treatise, he 
retired." " The treatise, having heen written, was sold." 

The difference between a past participle, as it enters into the combina- 
tion of an anterior tense of a verb, and as an independent part of speech, 
may be seen in the following sentences : 

Verb. 
The gentleman has foundered a horse. 
Past Participle. 
The gentleman has a horse foundered. 

Participles, like infinitive verbs, are used absolutely, or without govern- 
ment ; as, '^To tell the truth, I was present." '* Properly speaking, there 
is no difference." 

Under the head of Participles, in Etymology, the subject is treated 
more at length. 

RULE XXXIV. 
PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 

The participial noun loses its verbal quality when preceded 
by the definite article, and requires the preposition of to follow 
it; thus, 

**By the bleeding of his feet." 

** By the falling of lead, we know its density." 

The scholar should not confound (the) Heeding and (the) falling, in the 
above sentences, with the ordinary participial noun; which may, when 
formed from a transitive verb, govern an objective case. When the article 
is placed before the participle, the participial action must have proceeded 
from the following noun, governed by the preposition of; thus, 

*' By the bleeding of his feet, we detected him." 

The action expressed by bleeding proceeded from the feet ; for it was by 
the action (bleeding) of the feet that the person was detected ; as if it were 
thus expressed : 

** His feet bled; and we, by that, detected him." 

But when the participial noun is used without the article, it is the action 
of a noun or pronoun which is nominative or objective to the accompany- 
ing sentence ; thus, 

"We cured the man by bleeding his feet." 

Bleeding does not now express the action oi feet, but that of we; as if it 

were thus expressed : 

*' We bled his feet, and, by that means, cured him." 



SYNTAX. 151 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

By the smiting of the rock, Moses gained water. 

By is a preposition, governing smiting. 

the is a definite article, limiting smiting. 

smiting ... is a noun, third person, singular number, neuter gender, 

objective case, and governed by the preposition hy. 
of is a preposition, governing rock. 

The sentence is incorrect, because it is evident that the meaning to be 
conveyed is, that the action of smiting was performed by Moses ; but, as 
it stands, the sense is, that the rock smote, and Moses thereby gained 
water. The sentence should be, "By smiting the rock, Moses gained 
water." Moses smote the rock, and thus gained water: then, "By 
smiting the rock, Moses gained water." The rock burst, and Moses thus 
gained water; then, "By the bursting of the rock, Moses gained water." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

RULE XXXII. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns of the same case, 

and verbs of the same voice, and, generally, of the same mood 

and tense : 

"IZe and she are studying their lessons." " They read and write." 

"Teach both him and her." 

The principal conjunctions, and their corresponding words, are explained 
under the head of correlatives. 

The dual conjunction both, which corresponds with and, is frequently 
misplaced in a sentence. "He is in both the high school and the college :" 
that is correct. " He is both in the high school and the college :" that is 
incorrect. 

That is an explanatory conjunction ; it is almost invariably used by way 
of explanation. For example, 

" I told you that he would come." 
" Oh ! that my eyes were a fountain." 
That is, " Oh ! I wish (and as an explanation of that wish) that my eyes 
were a fountain. It is a conjunctive word, connecting the declaratory with 
the explanatory sentence : 

Declaratory. Explanatory. 

" I informed him that he had been chosen." 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Than is a comparative conjunction, and is always the attendant of the 
comparative state of the adverb or the adjective ; thus, 

*' I am older than he." *' You read better than Mary." 

PARSING. 

Alas ! the joys which fortune brings • 

Are trifling, and decay ; 
And those who prize the paltry things, 

More trifling far than they. 

Alas is an interjection. 

the is a definite article, limiting Joys. 

joys is a noun common, third person, plural number, nominative 

case to the verb are. 

which is a relative pronoun, standing ^or joys, and is, consequently, 

in the third person, plural number, objective case, and go- 
verned by the verb brings, 

fortune ... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, nominative case to the verb brings. 

brings .... is an irregular (bring, brought, brought) transitive verb, third 
person, singular number, indicative mood, present tense, and 
agrees with its nominative, /or^wTie. 

are is the substantive verb, third person, plural number, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and agrees with its nominative, 
joys. 

trifling ... is a common adjective, declared oi joys. 

and is a copulative conjunction ; it is used to connect are trifling 

with decay (which is an association not warranted by the rules 
of grammar, and only to be tolerated in poetry). 

decay is a regular (decay, decayed, decayed) intransitive verb, third 

person, plural number, indicative mood, present tense, and 
agrees with joys. 

and is a copulative conjunction, connecting the two parts of the 

paragraph, both of which are affirmative. 

those is a demonstrative adjective, qnalifymg persons , understood. 

[The meaning is this : " Those persons who prize the paltry 
things, are more trifling than they (the things) are. Persons, 
understood, is in the nominative to the verb are, understood, 
after the word things.] 

who is a relative pronoun, standing for perso?is; it is in the third 

person, plural number, and in the nominative case to the verb 
prize. 



SYNTAX. 153 

prize is a regular (prize, prized, prized) transitive verb, third per- 
son, plural number, indicative mood, present tense, and 
agrees with its nominative, who. 

the is a definite article, limiting things. 

paltry .... is a common adjective, qualifying things. 

things .... is a noun common, third person, plural number, objective 
case, and governed by the verb prize. 

are (understood) is the substantive verb ; it agrees vi^ith its nomi- 
native, persons, understood. 

more is an adverb, in the comparative degree (much, more, most\ 

qualifying the adjective trifling, 
trifling .... is a common adjective, declared oi persons, understood. 

far is an adverb, qualifying the adverb more. 

than is a comparative conjunction, connecting (those) persons and 

they, and corresponding with more trifling, the comparative 

degree o{ trifling. 
they is a personal pronoun, third person, plural number, neuter 

gender (standing for things), nominative case to the verb are, 

understood. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The book is published both in Philadelphia and Boston. 

both is a dual conjunction, corresponding with and, and intended 

to connect Philadelphia and Boston. It is incorrectly placed ; 
the sentence should be, "The book is published in both 
Philadelphia and Boston." If both precedes a preposition, it 
supposes a different preposition before the other primary: 
" both m Philadelphia, and near Boston." 

EXAMPLES. 

The carriage stopped, and both him and she alighted. 
He has been deceived, and will punish his deceivers. 
The ship is heavy burthen, and therefore can not float over these shoals. 



CORRELATIVES. 

RULE XXXIII. 

Almost all the conjunctions have other words which corre- 
spond with them, and assist them in their offices, and by which 
they are invariably preceded or followed, either expressed 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or understood ; these words are called correlatives, or corre- 
spondents. The following list embraces some of them : 

And has both 

Though, or although, yet 

If then 

Whether or 

Neither nor 

Either or 

So as 

So that 

As as 

Because therefore 

Such • as 

The different degrees of the adjective and adverb, likewise, frequently 
require particular words, in order to express comparative or relative pro- 
perties, situation, &c. ; thus. 

The positive state of the adjective and the adverb requires . . , as 

The comparative, than 

The superlative of 

This is illustrated in the following examples : 

*' He is as wise as his father." 

'* He was wiser than his father." 

"He was the wisest of all the family." 

" She sings as sweetly as you." 

" She sings more sweetly than you." 

** She sings the most sweetly of all." 

F ALS E SYNTAX. 

This is the better book of the two. 

Not correct, because the coniparative state of the adjective better can 

not correspond with the preposition of. The definite article the is rarely 

properly applied to the comparative state ; the sentence should stand 

thus, " This is the best book of the two." 

EXAMP LES. 

I have only two children ; this is the older, and that the younger. 
The older lad was dismissed from school with every mark of disgrace ; 
while the younger was retained, and rewarded for his diligence. 
You would do well by taking the shorter way. 
Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 
He is the more agreeable man of the two. 



SYNTAX. 155 

RULE XXXIV. 

AND BOTH. 

And^ the grand copulative conjunction, has both for its corre- 
spondent, when the sentence is emphatic, and two parts of speech 
only are connected ; thus, 

** He is hoth rich and happy/' 

" Both Charles and William will go." 

Both is also an adjective, of the same dual character as it is when a 
conjunction, and qualifies a word that means two, and only two. It is, as 
an adjective, without the correspondent and, though retaining the same 
idea of duality. 

We do not find, in the English language, any form of a noun which 
in itself expresses, by variation, only two, as there may be found in many 
other languages ; such a form is said to be in the dual number ; but we 
have words that express, in themselves, two — " a j?azV of twins," "a 
couple of pairs of tv^ins;" and we have the adjective hoth, which., when 
applied to a noun, causes it to signify two, and two only; as, " 6o^/i boys ;" 
by which is meant, all of two. Beyond the number of two, we usually 
say all; as, ^^ some of them;" '•^ all of them." "John and Charles were 
here; they are hoth well." *' William, Henry and Alfred, have gone 
home ; they are all three sick." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He had both money, friends and credit. 
He is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, mascu 

line gender, nominative case to the verb had. 
had ...... is an irregular (have, had, had) transitive verb, third person, 

singular number, indicative mood, past tense, and agrees 

with he. 
hoth is a conjunction, used to correspond with and, when and 

connects two words or sentences only, according to the rule ; 

but, in this sentence, and connects money, friends and credit; 

hoth is, consequently, improperly used. 
money .... friends and credit are nouns common, third person, neuter 

gender, objective case, governed by the verb had. "He had 

money, friends and credit." 

EXAMPLES. 

This island is inhabited both by blacks, whites and Creoles ; the last, 
the descendants of the others. 

They are not stinted to the gifts of speaking and hearing; but, by the 
exertions of others, they are enabled both to read, write and cypher. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The acquirement of his riches cost him anxiety ; and the loss of them 
produced both disappointment, pain and anguish. 

Whatever may be the pleasures of sin, religion can make us both wise, 
great and happy. 

Verbs have both number, person, mood and tense. 



RULE XXXV. 

THOUGH YET. 

Though is called an unconditional conjunction; it is used 
when the action or being, expressed by the accompanying mem- 
ber of the sentence, is entirely independent of that part of it to 
which though belongs. This conjunction has yet for its corre- 
spondent; thus, 

^^ Though the weather should be pleasant, yet he would not walk out.'* 
*' Yet he will go, though you have forbidden him repeatedly." 

RULE XXXVI. 

IF THEN. 

ijf is a conditional conjunction, because it governs the verb 
expressing the condition of some action or being ; it has then 
for its correspondent ; thus, 

"i/" they keep my commandments, then they shall live.** 

There is one use of if in which then does not accompany it ; thus, "He 
looks as if he had been sick;" that is, "He looks as (he would look) if 
he had been sick.'* 

PARSING. 

I will be silent if you will speak. 

./ . . is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case to the verb will he. 

will he . , , . is the substantive verb, first person, singular number, indi- 
* cative mood, future tense, and agrees with its nominative, I. 

silent is a common adjective, declared of 7. 

if is a conditional conjunction, connecting the two sentences. 

you is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, norni 

native case to will speak. 

will speak . . is an irregular (speak, spoke, spoken) intransitive verb, 
second person, plural number; this is the indicative form of a 



SYNTAX. 157 

verb, yet being preceded by if, and expresfing a condition, it 
is put into the subjunctive mood ; it is in the future tense, 
and agrees with its nominative, you. 

EXAMPLES. 

I will forgive him, if he will write an apology. 
If he will assist me, we may easily succeed. 
If he will wait for me, I will call for him. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Charles will try, if he lose his life in the attempt. 

If is used when the sentence which it governs expresses the condition 
of the accompanying sentence. In this sentence, there is no condition, 
expressed or implied, on which Charles is to try ; on the contrary, the 
sentence implies that Charles is to perform the act unconditionally ; the 
word therefore which connects, should be unconditional ; thus, 

** Charles will try, though he should lose his life in the attempt." 

EX AMP LES. 

It is surprising to see a sick person so perversely obstinate ; for, if he 
should be told, twenty times a day, to avoid the air, you might find him 
as frequently in the street. 

Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, 
If memory, o'er their tomb, no trophies raise ; 

Where, through the long drawn aisle and fretted vault, 
The pealing anthem swells the notes of praise. 

We ought not to despair, even if completely exhausted ; the same good 
hand that made, can support us. 

What if the swelling surge thou see, 

Impatient to devour ; 
Rest, mortal, rest, on God's decree, 

And, thankful, own his power. 

It is in vain to oppose him ; he will not give up his determination, if a 
whole world should be leagued against him. 

As though thy hand, almighty Jove, 
Would less than thunder wield. 

He looks as though he could scarcely survive this dreadful attack. 
We should use riches as though we were the almoners of heaven. 
14 O 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RULE XXXVII. 

WHETHER OR. 

Whether is a conjunction of doubt or uncertainty, and has or 
for its antecedent ; it is used when the dependent sentence is of 
a doubtful or uncertain nature ; as, 

** I can not tell whether it will be fair to-morrow or not.'* 
" See whether he will tell you the time of day or not.'' 

It is common to hear if used instead of whether; but this mistake the 
learner should carefully avoid. 

Formerly, whether was a pronoun and pronominal adjective, of a dis- 
criminating dual character; that is, referring to one or another of two ; as, 

*' I know not whether of the two will go ;" 

that is, "which one of the two." This use has long since ceased, though 
the old books abound in examples. The conjunction whether, however, 
partakes largely of the character of the old pronoun. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Call at the post-office, and see if the mail has arrived ; and ask if there 

are any letters for me. 
If, in both parts of this compound sentence, is a conditional conjunc- 
tion ; but the sense requires a conjunction of doubt or uncertainty, and, 
consequently, the word whether should be used: "See whether the mail 
has arrived, and ask whether there are any letters for me." It will be seen, 
also, that the word or, the correspondent or correlative of whether, is U7i' 
derstood; thus, " See whether the mail has arrived (or not), and ask whe- 
ther there are any letters for me (or not)^ 

EXAMPLES. 

Ask the gentleman if he wishes to have the cloth, which he purchased 
this morning, sent to his house. 

'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill 
Appears in writing, or in judging ill. 

Lord Grey asked him if he had been long in the family of her royal 
highness. 

Then ask thy soul, if this is peace. 

I do not know if I am in order, but I feel it incumbent on me to address 
you. 

I was unable to ascertain if he intended to accompany us or no. 

See if he will go or no. 



SYNTAX. loy 

RULE XXXVIII. 

THAN. 

Than is a conjunction of unequal comparison, and must have 
some adjective or adverb in the comparative degree, or the 
words else^ other, otherwise, for a correspondent ; thus, 

'* He is older than she." 

** This book is more elegantly bound than that." 

** We have no other books than these." 

" He is doing little else than mischief." 

It is a common error to use hut, in the place of than^ in such a sen- 
tence, "I have no other goods hut these." The sentence should be, '* I 
have no goods hut these," or *'no other thaii these." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Charles is not better, yet he is as good as your father. 

better is an adjective of the comparative degree (good, better, best), 

declared of Charles. The comparison instituted by hetter is 
between he and father. When the comparative state of the 
adverb or adjective is used, the comparative conjunction than 
must correspond with it ; the sentence should, therefore, 
stand thus : ' ' Though Charles is not better than your father 
(is), yet he is as good (as he is)." 

EXAMPLES. 

It is impossible for me to do it any other way but that. 

His education has been sadly neglected ; he can, indeed, read and spell 
a little ; but he will do little else but dance. 

When we contemplate the perfidy of those whom we have trusted, we 
may well exclaim, we have no other friend but God. 

RULE XXXIX. 

NEITHER NOR BECAUSE THEREFORE. 

Neither, as a conjunction, has nor for its correspondent. All 
the primaries of this conjunction are to be considered in a nega- 
tive state ; as, 

'^Neither Charles wor William has been rewarded." 

" The boys can neither read nor write." 

'* He is neither above nor below the standard." 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Because is used with therefore, in a solemn style, when a cause is as- 
signed, and an act declared ; thus, 

*^ Because ye believed not my word, therefore I cut you off." 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Neither his friends or his enemies suspected him. 

Such people will neither work to obtain independence, or beg to share 
a subsistence. 

He would neither love his friend, or hate his enemies. 

It was his intention neither to dissolve the parliament, or change the 
ministry. 

RULE XL. 

EITHER OR. 

Either^ having or for its correspondent, is used when one 
only of its primaries is to be considered as performing an office 
in the sentence. These conjunctions can have no more than 
two primaries ; thus, 

^^ Either Charles or William shall go.** 

" He shall either write or read." 

*' He was either in or under the house.'* 

It may be proper to note that the word either, when used as an adjective 
before a noun, does not always take the correspondent or ; as, 

^^ Either boy may go ; but not both.^^ 

But, whether as an adjective or a conjunction, either conveys an idea of 
mdividuality, as one of two; thus, *' Take either one or the other; but do 
not take both of them." 

** Pave either side of the street (I care not which); but leave one side 
unpaved." That is, ** Pave either one side, or the other, of the street ; 
but do not pave both sides.'* 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I know not what I should think of him ; he is either mad or crazy, or a 

part of each. 
either is incorrect ; it should be used with only two primaries ; and 

as three are connected here, viz., 7nad, crazy, and part, the 

word either should be omitted. 



SYNTAX. 161 

EXAMPLES, 

The man either heard a noise, or suspected inc before, or saw me enter. 
He shall either read, write, or cypher. 

It is either his ambition, his pride, or his hypocrisy, which keeps him 
from company that can not disgrace him. 
He is either diffident, sad, or angry. 



RULE XLI. 

so AS THAT. 

The adverb 5o, showing the manner, has as for a correspond- 
ent, when a consequence is expressed by a verb in the infinitive 
mood ; thus, 

*' He turned so as to give me a full view of his face." 

In examples like the above, the verb in the infinitive mood is said to be 
governed by as. 

Care should be taken, when these correspondents are employed, not to 
use a finite verb to express the consequences. 

So has the conjunction that for a correspondent, when the consequence 
is expressed by a finite verb ; thus, 

** He was so industrious, that he soon grew rich." 

*' They beat him so that he died." 

" The boat was so heavily loaded, that it sank." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He sat so as gave me a very clear view of his face. 
Not correct, because so and as, expressing a manner and consequence, 
require the verb to which as refers, to be in the infinitive mood. The 
sentence should stand thus : **He sat so as to give me a very clear view 
of his face." 

EXAMPLES. 

His wound was so great as that it compelled him to resign the command 
of the army. 

It is difficult to correct his taste so much as that he should be induced 
to leave the habits of his childhood. 

Whatever maybe our situation in life, we should be careful to keep our 
appetites so well guarded as that we shall fall into no crimes. 

Were this method generally adopted, it would produce a discrimination 
so distinct as would go far towards a general reformation of manners. 
11 02 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XLII. 
AS— so. 

As has as for a correspondent, in a comparison of equality ; 

thus, 

** He is as good as his neighbor." 
^^ As soon as I saw hira, I spoke." 

But, if the sentence should be negative, so takes the place of the 
first as ; thus, 

** He is not so good as his neighbor." 

** He is not so well as he was yesterday." 

The adjective such has a correspondent in as, when parts are compared 
equally with a whole : " These are such as you have." 

PARSING. 

These are not such as are worn. 

These ,... .'iQ a demonstrative adjective, referring to a plural noun, 
understood. 

are is the substantive verb, third person, plural number, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and agrees with the noun which 
these qualifies. 

not is a negative adverb, qualifying are. 

such ...... is a demonstrative adjective, qualifying a noun, understood. 

[The noun understood in this sentence may be hats, bonnets, 
shawls, or the name of any article worn.] 

as is an adverb, connecting the two sentences, in comparing 

them. [It is a fault of some, that they make as a pronoun, 
when, in a comparative sentence, it corresponds with such, 
and is immediately followed by a verb, as in the sentence 
now given. This is probably done from an ignorance of the 
real nominative to the verb. The sentence should stand 
thus: *' These (perhaps bonnets) are not such (bonnets) as 
(those bonnets) are (which are) worn." Then] 

are worn . . is an irregular verb, (wear, wore, worn,) in the passive voice; 
it is in the third person, plural number, indicative mode, 
present tense, and agrees with the pronoun which, under- 
stood. " These are not such (bonneis) as (those are which) 
are worn. 



SYNTAX. 163 

The impropriety of making as nominative to the verb are, in the above 
sentence, is manifest, independently of a consideration of its different 
office, from its never being made an objective case to a transitive verb, in 
such a sentence as the following : 

** He is exactly such a man as I saw/* 

Now, if, in the example parsed, as had been made nominative to arCf 
then, in this sentence, as would necessarily be objective to saw. The 
sentence, however, should stand thus: ''He is exactly such a man as 
that person was whom I saw ;" or, better, "He is exactly like the man 
whom I saw." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

So soon as I heard that you had come, I hastened to see you ; but I did 
not arrive here as soon as I expected. 

!So (the fxrst word in the above sentence) is wrong ; it should be 

as, because the comparison is in equality, and affirmative. 
In the closing part of the sentence, "as soon as I expected," 
the first as is incorrect ; it should be so, because the sen- 
tence, or that part of it, is negative. 

EXAMPLES. 

The folly of kings is praised by men not half as foolish as they. 

Though this man was not as wise as his neighbor, he had some reason 
for blessing his own understanding. 

This book is not as well bound as the other ; but it is better printed. 

They did not give him as much in a week, as nature requires in a day ; 
and nature does not require as much in a week, as he had before eaten in 
a day. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

RULE XLIV. 

CONNECTION AND RELATION. 

In connecting the parts of a sentence by a preposition, care 
should be taken that the right one is used. 

The prepositions have been used with so little regard to their real sig- 
nification, that it is almost impossible to restore all of them to their legiti- 
mate use. The following examples of those most liable to be mistaken, 
will be found of much use to the scholar. 

To, unto, into, upon and at, refer to the end of some action ; they con- 
nect a verb and noun, expressive of the action and its termination ; thus, 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

** He went to Boston." *' He looked into the chasm." "He laid it upon 
the table." " He walked into the garden." " He arrived at Boston." 

There is one remarkable exception in the language to the usual uses of 
to; it arises out of the misuse, or, rather, the common use, of the anterior 
tense, indicative mood, of the substantive verb he: have been, has been, 
&c. This tense of the verb, which really only expresses existence, is 
made, by common use, to signify motion in two ways— lyeTif and returned; 
thus, 

*' He has been to New York this week ;" 

a sentence exactly equivalent to, ** He went to New York this week, and 
returned.'''' Taken in the sense and meaning which every other part of 
the verb has, the preposition at or in should follow. For example, 

** He has been in New York all this week ;" 
or, " He has been at school all this week." Here, the existence at or in 
a place, is all that lias been implies. 

Though the relation between two primaries is usually expressed by the 
preposition which connects them, yet many of the prepositions seem to 
be arbitrarily applied, and the same word seems to denote different rela- 
tions as it is differently used, and different prepositions are used to express 
a single relation. The following collection conforms to general usage; 

He is engaged for a time, or on a work, or to his employer. 

We abhor a traitor, and have abhorrence of treason. 

Treason is abhorrent to our nature. 

Accommodate myself to my circumstances, and accommodate you with 
a book. 

According to your rule, the verb must accord with the nominative. 

He is accused of a crime before the judge. 

Acquitted himself, acquitted of a crime. 

Adapted to, adaptation to, agreeable to. 

Ask for a dollar, inquire of him for the master, inquire after or about 
your relative. 

Awake to, arise from, are of doubtful propriety. 

Believe him, believe in his name, believe on our Lord. 

Betray to an enemy, betrayed into indiscretion. 

Boast not thyself of to-morrow, boast (of) an illustrious birth. 

Call upon his name, call on him, call at the hotel. 

Charge the goods to me, charge me with the goods, charge the crime 07i 
the man. 

Compare one passage with another, compare not man to God. 

Comply, compliance with. 

Concur vnth you in that sentiment, and on all general questions. 

Confide in, confide to your care, conformable with. 

Conversant with men and books, copy from the book, copy after an 
example. 



SYNTAX. 165 

Depend upon, pendent fro7n. 

Derogatory to his character, die of disease, die by an instrument of 
torture. 
Different /rom, difficuhy in doing, the difficulty of a, task, diminution of 
Disappointed i?i his expectations, disappointed of his rest. 
Disapprove of, discourage from, eager i?i pursuit. 
Engaged (occupied) in, engaged (employed) for. 
Equal to the task, equal with him. 
Exception to, expert in figures, expert at play. 
Familiar to us, we are familiar with the rule. 
Glad of that, glad to see you, glad in the Lord. 
Independent of dependent on. 
Indulge me with that song, indulge in that hope. 
Intrude into the house, intrude upon my learners. 
Marry one to another, two marry with each other. 
Martyr for truth, martyr to a habit. 

Protect others from evil, protect ourselves against assaults. 
Provide with ammunition for the day of battle. 
Reconcile him to his family, reconcile him with his conscience. 
Regard for, replete with, resemblance to, resolve on. 
Sick of, sink into the water, sink beneath the wave. 
Think of that, think on this. 

United with me in prayer, unite him to his society. 
Y^hieupon, vest with a right, rights are vested in the prisoner. 
"Wait on (to serve), wait upon (to go to). 

At differs from to, by connecting a verb which signifies existence or 
action finished, to its complement; thus, "He sailed to Pamphylia." 
"He stopped, or arrived, or was at Pamphylia." 

In and on refer to the place of being or action; thus, "He rode in a 
carriage." " He was in the river." " He was on a horse." 

By has several uses ; it sometimes is equal to past; thus, "He rode by 
the house." Its most important use is to govern the agent in a passive 
sentence ; thus, " The book was written by Johnson." By is also used 
in an asseveration; thus, "J5i/ Ashdod's fane, thou liest ;" i. e. "I swear 
hy Ashdod's fane that thou liest." 

With governs the instrument and accompaniment; thus, " He beat me 
with a stick." " He went with his father." 

0/ generally governs the possessor, or species from which an individual 
is taken; thus, "A likeness of my father ;" " He is one of a thousand." 
Of is not always confined to these two uses ; we say, "He is sick of such 
company." Of sometimes connects two words really in apposition ; thus, 
"The city of Philadelphia." Of frequently means about; thus, "He 
talked to me of the war." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

From governs the place from which a person or thing departs, or is 
received; thus, "He came from London." "These goods were taken 
fro7n the store." " They have received aid from France." 

A frequent misapplication of the prepositions to and with, is occasioned 
by a want of attention to the verbs. Verbs beginning with ad and at, 
which express relation, usually require the preposition ^o--those which 
begin with co, generally require with. 

EXAMPLES. 

He apaches himself to some favorite of the court. 

He adheres to those opinions which have been frequently condemned. 

It attracts to that point all the looser matter. 

He cooperates with his fellow-laborers. 

He complies with your request. 

He conforms with the fashion. 

In general, nouns and adjectives which are of a similar orthography, 
require the same preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

His attachment to our family. 
His a^Zhesion to those opinions. 
His cooperation with his fellows. 
In compliance with your request. 
In conformity with the fashion. 
In connection with my friends. 
In conjunction with Jupiter. 
Coequal with his father. 
Coheir with his brother. 
Conform seems, however, more frequently to have to for a correspond- 
ent ; thus, ** He conforms to the world." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He rode most gracefully upon that horse. 

While he was lying upon the deck, he received another and a fatal 
wound. 

He jumped on to the horse, and rode most gracefully. 

How wishfully she looks on all she 's leaving. 

He threw a stone in the window, which, falling on to the table, did 
much injury. 

As we were walking in the field, he fell on a vine, and unfortunately 
thrust a part of it in his hand. 

Into whatever distress I may be, I have never forgotten my integrity. 

Though fallen on evil days, on evil days though fallen. 

Received of Charles Smith, seven hundred dollars. 



SYNTAX. 167 

Shall we extend our hand to him ? Shall we reach forth to support the 
tottering ark ? Behold, he is smitten of the Lord. 

He purchases goods of the wholesale merchants. 

He adheres so closely with his old friends, that there is no hope of his 
recovery ; and we are right in casting him off, since he has connected 
himself to such worthless society. 

His attachment with your family will secure his friendship. 



RULE XLV. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; that is, the primary 
noun or pronoun of a preposition is always in the objective 
case; thus, 

To me. By him. With her. At Rome. 

PARSING. 

Who are you looking for? 

Who is a relative pronoun, interrogative for persons (and if it has 

any antecedent, it is in the name of th« person contained in 
the answer to the question, " I am looking for my father") ; 
its number ana person, of course, will depend upon the ante- 
cedent; it is in the nominative case, and, therefore, it is 
incorrect. The sentence, properly written, would be, "JPor 
whom are you looking ?" It should be whom, in the objective 
case, governed by the preposition for. 

EXAMPLES. 

Both she and him you will ask for at the door. 
It is easy for him and I to settle the question. 



OF PASSIVE SENTENCES. 

RULE XLVI. 

A passive sentence is formed by connecting a perfect parti- 
ciple with the substantive verb ; thus, 

** The book was written by Addison.'* 



IGS ENGLISH G K A M M A R . 

The perfect participle in a passive sentence must be formed 
from a transitive verb ; thus, in the passive sentence, 

" Eloquence was cultivated by Cato," 

the perfect participle, cultivated, is formed from the transitive 
verb, cultivated, in the following sentence : " Cato cultivated 
eloquence." 

Active. 
Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 

Passive. 

Paradise Lost was writteji by Milton. 

The exceptions to this rule are mentioned in Etymology. They are 
such cases as these : 

Active, but not Transitive Verb. 
He . . . referred . . . to Milton. 

Passive. 
Milton . . was referred to .. by him. 

Active, but not Transitive. 
He . . . disposed of . , . the house. 

Passive, 
The house . , was disposed of .. by him. 

The admission of such exceptions has given latitude to careless writers ; 
and the correct ear is often pained with attempts at a passive sentence, 
which no rules can justify, and no admitted exceptions can excuse. 

Transitive Verb. 

They showed us numerous flowers yesterday. 

From which active sentence, we sometimes meet with the following erro- 
neous attempt at a passive sentence : 

" We were yesterday sJiow?i numerous flowers.*' 

An examination of the above passive sentence will show that it is not 
formed on the privilege which sanctions the sentence, "The house w^as 
disposed of" 

The license of language which admits of the formation of any passive 
from an intransitive verb, is founded on the affinity of the preposition to 
the verb, which is so great, that, in the passive voice, when the verb is 
changed to a participle, it takes with it the preposition; as, ''disposed 
OF," " referred TO ;" and this, in all cases to which the privilege extends. 
This is so evident, that some grammarians have regarded the prepositions, 
in their active voices, as mere auxiliary particles, assisting tlie verb, and 
to be regarded rather as adverbs than prepositions. This is certainly not 
correct ; they are preposhions ; and it is better to regard them as such, in 



SYNTAX. 169 

the active voice, than to allow them to be exceptions, in that poshion, for 
the sake of avoiding the exception to the rule relative to the formation of 
the passive voice. 
But, in the formation of the passive from the active sentence, 
" They showed us numerous flowers yesterday," 
the same rule of connecting the preposition does not obtain. 

*' We were shown, yesterday, numerous flowers." 
Here, no preposition follows the participle shown. None, indeed, appears 
in the active sentence ; but one is understood ; and, in parsing, the 
pronoun 

us would be in the first person, plural number, objective case, 

governed by the preposition to, understood; as, "They 
showed to us numerous flowers yesterday." 
Now, to make the sentence correctly passive, flowers should be the 
nominative to the substantive verb, and the sentence should be thus : 
" Numerous flowers were shown to us yesterday." 
In all cases in which the passive voice is admitted from an intransitive 
verb, the same preposition must accompany the participle, which con- 
nected the intransitive verb from which that participle is formed, with the 
objective case that is to be made nominative to the passive verb. 

" For more than sixty years, Mr. Adams is understood to have kept a 
journal." 

The above sentence is modelled upon one of daily occurrence. It is, 

nevertheless, a direct violation of the rules of Syntax and Etymology. It 

is a passive sentence, formed, of course, from an active sentence; and the 

obvious meaning is this : 

Active. 

"I understand that Mr. Adams has kept a journal for more than sixty 

years." 
Here it is necessary to depart from the general rule of the formation of 
the passive, because the active verb understand is not transitive; that is, 
it has no objective case ; so that a nominative for the passive verb must be 
sought for. The result will be as follows : 

Passive. 

^'It is understood (by me) that Mr. Adams has kept a journal for more 

than sixty years." 

Here no preposition comes in to assist the participle, because the active 
verb was not connected by any preposition to an objective case; but the 
conjunction tJiat seemed to supply such a connection in the active sen- 
tence, and is retained in the passive : 

Active. Passive. 

"I understand <Aaf." '* It is understood that^ 

15 P 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It will also be observed that the nominative to the above formed passive 
is not derived from any objective case in the active sentence ; and this 
seems to be another exception to the general rule of forming the passive. 
But it is to be noted that the pronoun it, in the passive sentence, is used 
not in its ordinary pronominal character, for something of the neuter gen- 
der, but is placed there in its impersonal and non-relative character men- 
tioned on page 121 ; and it is no very great abuse of the license for supply- 
ing ellipses, to say that, in the active sentence, the pronoun it is also 
understood as the objective case to understand; as, 

** I understand (^0 that Mr. Adams has kept a journal for more than sixty 

years.''^ 

It is not asserted that it really belongs to understand as its object ; but 
It is evident that the subsequent portion of the sentence is really the object 
of the verb understood, and is, or ought to be, pronominally represented 
by it, or that. That is a conjunction ; but it has in it much of its ancient 
pronominal character, and not unfrequently approaches the pronoun that, 
or the demonstrative adjective that, in its office. 

** I told him that you would not need him." 

**I told him that (fact, or truth) you would not need him." 

From the active sentence, then, *'I understand (it) that Mr. Adams," 
&c., comes the passive sentence, *'It is understood that Mr. Adams," 
&c., with rather less of departure from the general rule than is at first 
apparent. The pupil must not infer that the verb understand (I under- 
stand) is to be parsed as a transitive verb, because of the remark upon 
the apparent propriety of its governing the pronoun it. But he is desired 
to give heed to the admissible exceptions to the well established rules, 
and to note that they proceed very often from some greater affinity to the 
unexceptionable, or regular passive sentences, than was at first evident. 

An examination of other exceptions to the rule of forming the passive, 
will be aided by the above cited examples, and the accompanying remarks. 
It is not intended, in this case, or in any other, to supply all the instances 
of exceptions. Enough is done, if the principle is made clear, and the 
pupil taught a facility in the application of rules. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 

Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door ; 
Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span — 

O ! give relief, and heaven will bless your store. 

Fity is a transitive verb, in the imperative mood, present 

tense, second person, plural number, and agrees with 
you, understood. [Though no nominative case to this 



SYNTAX. 171 

verb is mentioned, yet, by a reference to the last words 
of the verse {your), it will be seen that a plural number 
is addressed.] 
sorrows is a noun common, third person, plural number, objec- 
tive case, and governed by pity, 
of a poor old man is the complement oi sorrows. 

whose is a pronoun, in the possessive case (from who and whom), 

governed by limbs, 
have borne .... is an irregular (bear, bore, borne) transitive verb, third 
person, plural number, indicative mood. This verb ex- 
presses a time commencing anteriorly to the present, yet 
including it ; have borne is, therefore, present anterior 
tense, and agrees with limbs, 
days is a noun common, third person, plural number, nomi- 
native case to the verb are. 

are is the substantive verb, third person, plural number, 

indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with days, 
dwindled is a perfect participle from the verb dwindle; it is de- 
clared of days. The sentence, "whose days are dwin 
died," is passive. 
By a recurrence to preliminary observations, p. 109, it will be seen that 
a passive sentence is formed by changing the objective case of an active 
sentence into the nominative to the substantive verb, and having the per- 
fect participle from the active sentence for a predicate ; the whole followed 
by the preposition by, governing the agent of the active sentence ; thus, 

*'Rome destroyed Carthage." 
This is an active sentence, from which is made the following passive sen- 
tence : " Carthage was destroyed by Rome." 

*' The Task was written by Cowper." 
This is a passive sentence, or a sentence in a passive form. To ascertain 
whether it is correctly formed, it is only necessary to resolve the participle 
written into a verb, and to make Cowper its nominative, and Task its 
objective case ; thus, 

" Cowper wrote the Task." 

This is a correct active sentence ; it follows, therefore, that the passive 
sentence is also correct. 

Are dwindled is written for a passive sentence, yet no ingenuity of author 
or critic can show the active sentence from which it is formed ; that no 
one dwindled his days, is evident, because the preposition 63/ will not follow 
it. Dwindled is the action of days; it therefore should be an active, and 
not a passive verb. The time expressed by are dwindled exactly corre- 
sponds with that expressed by have borne; the verb should, therefore, be 
in the present anterior tense ; thus, "Whose days have dwindled to the 
shortest span." 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

The ship in which you expected your brother to come is arrived, and I 
can not find his name in the list of passengers. (See rule of Etymology 
on the passive voice.) 

She trembled at the jarring of the locks, for they dissipated those dear 
delusions which brought her hope. She saw in the countenance of him 
who stood before her, that her hour was come indeed. 

''And since I am got into quotations " 

Addison. 

Some women there are who are arrived at the years of discretion— I 
mean are got out of the hands of their parents and governors, and are set 
up for themselves, who yet are liable to these attempts ; but if these are 
prevailed upon, you must excuse me if I lay the fault upon them, that 
their wisdom is not grown with their years. Steele. 

Thus, when my fleeting days, at last, 
Unheeded, silently are past ; 
Calmly, I shall resign my breath. 
In life unknown, forgot in death. 

For beast and bird, 

They to their grassy couch, these to their uest, 
Were sunk. 



EXAMPLES 



ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 



When the scholar shall have committed to memory the rules 
of Syntax, and applied them by correcting and parsing the 
examples of false syntax under the different heads, it will be 
necessary to furnish him with pieces of greater length for pars- 
ing, in which he should be required to point out all errors, and 
correct them by the rules which he has received. He should 
supply every ellipsis, tell the word of which the preposition and 
its primary is a complement, and also, in a compound sentence, 
mention the part which contains the assertion, and that which is 
only explanatory. He should be required, also, to distinguish 
the passive from the active sentence, and to show how the 
passive sentence, which he is parsing, is derived from an active 
sentence ; in doing Vv^hich, he will be assisted by a recurrence 
to the following examples, in which all of these different rela- 
tions and offices are pointed out, and grammatically explained. 

In the succeeding examples, some of the words, for the sake 
of brevity, are not parsed ; it should, however, be required of 
the scholar to parse every ivord, and occasionally repeat the 
rule of Etymology or Syntax which applies to its accident or 
relation. Of course, the pupil will be required to parse from 
other books ; appropriate passages will be selected for his les- 
sons, and he will be required to apply all the rules of Etymology 
and Syntax that have a relation to the words of the lesson, or 
to their combinations. Frequent exercises of this kind give a 
habit of careful analysis, and correct composition. 

15* s P2 (173) 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

Around thee shall glisten the loveliest amber, 

That ever the sorrowing sea-bird has wept ; 
With many a shell, in whose hollow wreath'd chamber 

We, Peris of ocean, by moonlight, have slept. 

Around ... is a preposition, governing thee. 

thee is a personal pronoun, second person, singular number, objec- 
tive case, and governed by the preposition around. {Around 
thee is the complement of shall glisten; that is, it shows the 
place in which '' the loveliest amber shall glisten.^ ^] 

The scholar will understand, that by mentioning the word or words of 
which the preposition and its primary words form the complement, he 
points out the parts of speech with which it is said (102 of Etymology) a 
preposition connects some noun or pronoun. 

shall glisten is a regular (glisten, glistened, glistened) intransitive verb, 
third person, singular number, indicative mood, future tense, 
and agrees with its nominative, amber. 

the is a definite article, limiting amber. 

loveliest ... is a common adjective, in the superlative degree, qualifying 
amber. 

amber is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, nominative case to the verb shall glisten. The words 
"of all the am5er" seem to be understood, 

that is a relative pronoun, having (all the) amber for its antecedent ; 

it is in the third person, singular number, objective case, and 
governed by the transitive verb has wept. That is used in 
this sentence, rather than which, according to 66 of Ety- 
mology. 

the is a definite article, limiting sea-bird, 

sorrowing . . is an adjective, qualifying sea-bird. 

sea-bird ... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, nominative case to the verb has wept. 

has wept ... is an irregular (weep, wept, wept) transitive verb (transitive, 
because it governs that) ; third person, singular number, 
indicative mood, present anterior tense, and agrees with its 
nominative, sea-bird. 

with is a preposition, governing shell. 

many is an indefinite adjective, qualifying shell; the adjective ma?iy 

has a plural signification ; yet, when it is followed by the 
indefinite article, it may qualify nouns in the singular number. 

a is an indefinite article, limiting shell. 

shell is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the preposition loi^/i. 



PARSING. 175 

With connects shell, as an accompaniment, with the noun 
amber (see observations on with, page 165). [With many a 
shell is the complement of amber.] 

m ...... , is a preposition, governing chamber. 

whose refers pronominally to shell. 

hollow .... is an adjective, qualifying chamber, 

wreath'' d ... is an adjective, qualifying chamber. 

chamber .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 
case, and governed by the preposition in. [In whose hollow 
wreathed chamber is the complement of have slept. This com- 
plement, and the following part of the verse, are connected 
with the preceding part by the conjunctive pronoun whose; 
this, by referring back, in its pronominal state, to the noun 
shell, connects the two parts.] 

«^e is a pronoun, first person, plural, nominative to have slept. 

-^em is a noun common, third person, plural number, masculine 

gender, in apposition with we. 

of is a preposition, governing ocean. 

ocean is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the preposition of. 
[Of ocean is the complement of Pern.] 

^y is a preposition, governing moonlight. 

moonlight . . is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, objective case, governed by the preposition by. [By 
moonlight is the complement of have slept. When two words 
are connected by the hyphen (thus, moon-light), it is usual to 
consider them as one part of speech ; but when the hyphen 
is omitted (thus, moonlight), moon, although a noun of itself, 
appears to perform the office of an adjective, because it dis- 
tinguishes the light of the moon from the light of the sun. 
The same observations apply to other compound words.] 
have slept . . is an irregular (sleep, slept, slept) intransitive verb, third 
person, plural number, indicative mood, present anterior 
tense, and agrees with its nominative, We. 

''That the sea-bird has wept,'' is an active sentence. [See preliminary 
observations.] 



Glory's shining chariot swiftly draws. 
With equal whirl, the noble and the base. 
Glory's ... is a noun, in the possessive case, singular number, ana 

governed by chariot, 
chariot .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, nominative case to the verb draws, 
swiftly .... is an adverb of manner, qualifying dravjs. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

draws .... is an irregular (present, draw; past, drew; perfect parti- 
ciple, drawn) transitive verb (transitive, because it has 7iohle 
and base for its objective case), third person, singular num- 
ber, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with its 
nominative, chariot. 

with is a preposition, governing whirl. 

equal is an adjective, qualifying whirl. 

whirl is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 

case, governed by the preposition with. [With equal whirl 
is the complement of draws; it serves, adverbially, to show 
how the chariot draws.] 

the is a definite article, limiting nohle. 

noble is a noun, third person, plural number, objective case, and 

governed by the transitive verb draws. 

and is a copulative conjunction, connecting noble and base, used 

rather than the disjunctive conjunction, or because both the 
noble and the base are said to be drawn. 

the is a definite article, limiting base. 

base is a noun common, third person, plural number, objective 

case, governed by the transitive verb draws. [The words 
7ioble and base are, of themselves, adjectives ; but, being 
made the objective case of a verb, and evidently standing for 
classes of individuals, they are, in this sentence, nouns. 
Nouns, formed in this manner from adjectives, are almost 
invariably in the plural number.] 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

Why is glory^s in the possessive case ? 

Why is chariot a noun common ? 

Why is chariot in the third person and singular number ? 

Why should the verb draws have a final s ? 

Why is whirl in the objective case. 



I have sometimes amused myself with considering the several methods 
of managing a debate, which have obtained in the world. 

Spectator. 

/ is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case to have amused. 

have amused is a regular (amuse, amused, amused) transitive verb (transi- 
tive, because it governs myself) ; first person, singular num- 
ber, indicative mood, present anterior tense, and agrees with 
its nominative, I. 

Till/self . ... is a personal pronouHj of the reciprocal kind (see paragraph 



PARSING. 177 

and observations, 59, Etymology), first person, singular 
number, objective case, governed by the transitive verb have 
amused. 

with is a preposition, governing consideriiig. 

considering . is a participial noun, objective case, governed by the prepo- 
sition with. 

the is a definite article, limiting methods. 

several .... is an indefinite adjective, qualifying methods. 

methods ... is a noun, third person, plural number, neuter gender, objec- 
tive case, governed by considering. [With considering the 
several methods, is the complement of have amused.] 

of is a preposition, governing managing. 

managing . . is a participial noun, governed by of. [See Syntax, rule 34.] 

a is an indefinite article, limiting debate. 

debate is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 

case, governed by the preposition by. [Of managing a debate 
is the complement of methods.] 

which is a relative pronoun, having methods for its antecedent, and 

is, consequently, in the third person, plural number, neuter 
gender ; it is in the nominative case to the verb have obtained. 

have obtained is a regular (obtain, obtained, obtained) intransitive verb, 
third person, plural number, indicative mood, present ante- 
rior tense, and agrees in number and person with its nomina- 
tive, which. 

tn IS a preposition, governing world. 

the is a definite article, limiting world. 

world is a noun, third person, singular number, neuter gender, 

objective case, and governed by the preposition in. [In the 
world is the complement of have obtained.] 

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

Why is /a personal pronoun, and why in the first person? 

Why is / the nominative case ? 

In what respect does have amused agree with I ? 

Why is myself used instead of me ? 

Why are considering and managing participial nouns, rather than 

present participles ? 
Why is in the world said to be the complement of have obtained 1 



The Americans believe that all creatures have souls. 

. Spectator. 

i^t- IS a definite article, limiting Americans. 

Am^\ tans . is a noun common, third person, plural number, masculine 

gender, nominative case to the verb believe. 

12 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

believe .... is a regular (believe, believed, believed) intransitive verb, 
third person, plural number, indicative mood, present tense, 
and agrees with its nominative, Americans. 

that is an explanatory conjunction, connecting the two simple sen- 
tences, "the Americans believe," and "all creatures have 
souls ;" the latter sentence is explanatory of the belief of the 
Americans ; the former contains the assertion. 

all is a collective adjective, qualifying creatures. 

creatures . . is a noun common, third person, plural number, nominative 
case to the verb have. 

have is an irregular (have, had, had) transitive verb, third person, 

plural number, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees 
with its nominative, creatures. 

souls is a noun, third person, plural number, neuter gender, objec- 
tive case, and governed by the verb liave. 



Come, lovely nymph, and range the mead with me, 
To spring the partridge from the guileful foe ; 

From secret snares the struggling bird to free, 
And stop the hand upraised to give the blow. 

Come is an irregular (come, came, come) intransitive verb, second 

person, singular number, in the imperative mood, present 
tense, and agrees v/ith thoUf understood. 

nymph .... is a noun common, second person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case, independent, because it is the name of the person 
addressed. 

a7id is a copulative conjunction, connecting corne and range. 

range is a verb, in the imperative mood, and agrees with thou. 

to spring . . is a verb, in the infinitive mood, present tense; it is depend- 
ent on range, and therefore governed by it. 

bird is in the objective case, governed by to free. 

to free .... is a verb in the infinitive mood, present tense, and dependent 
on range. 

and is a copulative conjunction, connecting to spring, to free, and 

stop. 

stop is a verb in the infinitive mood, present tense (the sign to is 

omitted on account of the use of the conjunction and) ; it is 
governed by the verb ra?ige. 

upraised ... is a perfect participle, from the verb upraise; it is declared 
of the pronoun which, understood; thus, "Stop the hand 
which is upraised," &c. 



PARSING. 179 

The learner will observe that the whole of the last three lines are de- 
pendent on the first line ; that the object for which they are to range, is,; 
to spring, to free, and to stop: this is the reason that the three infinitive 
verbs are connected by the conjunction and. 



By solemn vision, and bright silver dream, 
His infancy was nurtured. Every sight 
And sound from the vast earth and ambient air, 
Sent to his heart its choicest impulses. 

Vision .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, objective 
case, governed by the preposition hy. [By solemn vision and 
bright silver dream is the complement of nurtured.] 

nurtured . . is a perfect participle, from the verb nurture; it is declared 
of infancy. [The sentence is passive, because it declares 
how infancy was aflfected by vision and dream. The active 
sentence from which this is made is, '* Solemn vision and 
bright silver dream nurtured his infancy."] 

sent is an irregular transitive verb (transitive, because it governs 

impulses), indicative mood, past tense, and agrees with sight. 
[This sentence is active, because the agent, sight, is declared 
to do something.] 



He saw me when I arrived, and called so earnestly, that he disclosed 
his retreat. 

When .... is an adverb of time ; it qualifies saw, by showing the time 
of the action. [This adverb has a conjunctive office ; it con- 
nects the two sentences, "He saw me," and "I arrived," 
and shows them to be of the same time. He saw me contains 
the assertion, and / arrived only denotes the time referred to 
by whe7i.] 

and is a copulative conjunction, connecting saw and was. 

so is an adverb of manner, qualifying earnestly. 

earnestly . . is an adverb, qualifying called. 

that is an explanatory conjunction, corresponding with so. That, 

when a correspondent of so, is used to refer to the conse- 
quence of the event, of which so expresses the manner; thus, 
so, connected with earnestly, shows the manner m which he 
called; and that has a reference to the consequence of his 
calling, which is expressed in the sentence, "He disclosed 
his retreat." 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Where thou dost watch, I will sleep. 
Where .... is an adverb of place ; it expresses the place of will sleep, and 
therefore qualifies that verb, [i will sleep is the assertion; 
thou dost watch only expresses the place referred to by where.] 



Lest they faint 
At the sad sentence rigorously urged, 
(For I behold them soften'd, and with tears 
Bewailing their excess,) all terror hide. 

Lest is an adverb, qualifying /ami. [This adverb, like when, as, 

&c., is conjunctive ; it connects they faint and hide all terror.] 

they is a personal pronoun, third person, plural number, nomina- 
tive case to the verb faint. 

faint is a regular (faint, fainted, fainted) intransitive verb, third 

person, plural number, potential form, but is regarded as in 
the subjunctive mood (because it means they should faint) ; 
past tense, agreeing with its nominative, they. [By a reference 
to the observations on the potential mood, it may be seen that 
this tense of the potential mood, in its present connected form, 
is used to express a relative posterior time. In this sentence, 
should faint expresses an event which may follow the action 
expressed by hide, and is, therefore, in the tense which is 
conjugated as the past of the potential mood. It is the pre- 
sent tense of the conjunctive mood there alluded to.] 
At the sad sentence is the complement of should faint. 

urged is a perfect participle, declared of sentence. 

for is an adverb of cause, qualifying behold; it connects the two 

parts of the whole sentence, and shows that the following 
part, *' I behold them softened and bewailing their excess," 
is used to show the cause of the command contained in the 
other part of the sentence. 

soften'd ... is a perfect participle, declared of them. 

and is a copulative conjunction, connecting the two limbs of the 

sentence, ''I behold them softened," and "I behold them 
bewailmg their excess." 

terror is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, governed by hide. 

hide is an irregular (hide, hid, hidden) transitive verb, second per- 
son, singular number, imperative mood, present tense, and 
agrees with thou, understood. 
The words hide all terror, in the above example, belong before the word 

lest, in the first line. 



PARSING. 181 

The book is worth a dollar. 

The is a definite article, limiting hook. 

hook is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, nominative case to the verb is. 

ts is the substantive verb, third person, singular number, indi- 
cative mood, present tense, and agrees with hooh. 

worth is a preposition, governing dollar. 

a is an indefinite article, limiting dollar, 

dollar is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, objective case, and governed by the preposition 
worth. 

This sentence, and others of a similar nature, have been differently 
parsed by other grammarians. Worth has been called an adjective by 
some, and a noun by others ; worth, however, in this sentence, expresses 
a relation by value, and is so far a preposition; and no ellipsis which may 
be formed would change the nature of the word, without giving the sen- 
tence a different meaning. 

OF ELLIPSIS. 

In the course of the examples of etymological parsing, the learner has 
had something of the nature of the ellipsis explained. It is necessary 
that the subject should be understood, in order that the dependence and 
relation of the words may be known. Without this knowledge — that is, 
without understanding what the sense of the author is — no person can 
parse a sentence correctly; with a true conception of the meaning and 
intent of the words, the sentence may be easily parsed. The following 
sentence is very elliptical ; 

Is it in time to hide eternity ? 

Then why not in an atom on the shore 

To cover ocean ? or a mote, the sun ? 

The ellipsis may be thus supplied : *' Is it in the power of time to hide 
eternity ? If it is, then why is it not in the power of an atom, which is 
on the shore, to cover the ocean? Or why is it not in the power of a 
mote to cover the sun?" 

Before the word then, there seem to be many words wanting. The 
first line in the poetry seems to be a question asked by the poet, and 
answered in the affirmative by the person addressed ; to which the poet 
replies: *' If it is in the power of time to hide eternity, then why not in 
an atom," &c. 

The scholar should supply words until every secondary part of speech, 
in the given sentence, is furnished with a proper primary, and every pri- 
mary with its necessarily governing or agreeing secondary. 

16 Q 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following form, containing an omission of the antecedent, is ex- 
tremely common in poetry : 

*' Who knows not this, though gray, is still a child ;" that is, *'lZe who 
knows not this, although he is gray, is still a child." 

''Who does the best he can, does well;" that is, "He who does the 
best he can, does well." 

An omission of a part of the compound participle is very common in 
poetry; thus, 

*' There, arrived, both stood, both turned;" 
that is, having arrived there, both stood, &c. This ellipsis is very com- 
mon in Milton's works. 



From his baneful influence, few have freed themselves. 

Few (persons) is not, as it appears to be, the nominative to have freed; 
but it is the nominative to the verb are. 

The following is the sentence with the ellipsis supplied: ''There are 
few persons who have freed themselves from his baneful influence." 



In order to make useful applications of the rules of Etymology and 
Syntax, pieces of complicated construction should be parsed. But the 
scholar should be made to understand the intention of the author, before 
he atten^pts close parsing ; that can be effected only by an analysis of the 
sentence, and a natural arrangement of its parts. Take the following 

EXAMPLE. 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat : 
Sing, heavenly muse. 

Here, the piece opens wdth a complemental part of a sentence, and the 
whole extract is unnatural. The natural order would be : 

''Sing, heavenly muse, of man's first disobedience, and of the fruit of 
that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and 
all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and regain 
the blissful seat." 

si7ig is an irregular intransitive verb, second person, singular num- 
ber, and agrees with thou, understood. 
of marCs first disoledience is the complement of sing. The whole of the 



PARSING. 183 

remainder of the first sentence is a complement of sing; yet 

some of its parts have relations to others. 
{of) the fruit is a complement of sing, 
of that forbidden tree is the complement ol fruit, 
whose is a conjunctive pronomi, standing for fruit; it controls, and 

connects that word with, the whole of the lemaining portion 

of the extract. 
brought .... is an irregular transitive verb, third person, singular number, 

indicative mood, past tense, and agrees wdth taste. 
into the world is the complement of brought. 
and is a conjunction, connecting death and woes; they are both 

brought into the world ; and both words are in the objective 

case, and governed by brought. 
with loss of Bden is the complement of brought. The preposition with 

connects loss of Eden with death and till. 
till is a conjunctive adverb ; conjunctively, it connects loss of 

Bden (that is, brought the loss of Eden) with (shall) restore, 

showing that the loss of Eden is to continue only till a greater 

man shall restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 
greater .... is an adjective, in the comparative degree, qualifying man. 

The comparison is between greater man, and the man referred 

to in the phrase, man's first disobedience. 
sing is an irregular intransitive verb, second person, singular 

number, and agrees with thou, understood (sing thou). 
muse is a noun, second person, singular number, feminine gender, 

and is in the nominative case independent ; that is, it is inde- 
pendent of any verb. 



Let the scholar read carefully the following extract from Cowper's 
''Task." 

THEPULPIT. 

The pulpit, therefore, (and I name it, fill'd 
With solemn awe, that bids me well beware 
With what intent I touch that holy thing) — 
The pulpit (when the satirist has at last, 
Strutting and vaporing in an empty school. 
Spent all his force and made no proselyte) — 
I say, the pulpit (in the sober use 
Of its legitimate, peculiar povv'-ers) 
Must stand acknowledged, while the world shall stand. 
The most important and effectual guard. 
Support, and ornament of Virtue's cause. 
It will be seen that the subject is the pulpit ; and a careful e-xamination 
will show, also, with all the parenthetical additions, the intention of the 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

author is to assert that the pulpit must stand acknowledged the guard, 
support and ornament of virtue's cause. The rest is explanatory. 

The analysis and parsing should be as follows, or closer, if the circum- 
stances of the pupil render it proper : 

The ...... is a definite article, WmiXmg pulpit. The definite article is 

used iflie pulpit), because the sense is not of any particular 
pulpit, or desk ; but the place generally, or, rather, the office 
of preaching. 

pulpit .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, nominative case to the verb must stand, in the ninth 
line. 

tlierefore ... is an adverb, equivalent to for that reason, or for those rea- 
sons, and means that, for the reason stated in a preceding 
paragraph, " the pulpit must stand acknowledged the guard," 
&c. ; it conjunctively connects the argument of the preced- 
ing paragraph, with the argument of the paragraph quoted. 
As an adverb, it qualifies must stand, in the ninth line. 

and is a copulative conjunction; it connects the yvordi pulpit, as a 

sentence, with the sentence, I name it, &c. ; the sense would 
be complete without it. 

filled is a perfect participle, relating to I; that is, / am filled. 

with solemn awe is the complement oi filled. 

that is a relative pronoun for awe, nominative to hids. 

beware .... is a verb of the infinitive mood, and governed by hids. 

with what intent is a complement of beware; the compound pronominal 
adjective what includes two words, that and which; and the 
idea is like the following, relative to that, or the intent with 
which I touch. 

holy thing . . alludes to the pulpit. The whole of the parenthetical sen- 
tence has allusion to the feelings of the speaker, and is not 
directly explanatory of the quality of the subject. 

the pulpit . . in the fourth line, is a mere repetition of the same words in 
the first line. 

when (fourth line) is an adverb, qualifying has spent, in the fourth 

and sixth lines ; conjunctively, it relates to had spent and 
must stand, in the ninth line. 

satirist .... is a noun common, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender (because afterwards it is referred to by the per- 
sonal pronoun in the masculine gender, "Ms force"), nomi- 
native case to the verb has spent. 

has spent . . is an irregular transitive verb, third person, singular number, 
indicative mood, present anterior tense, and agrees with 
satirist. 

strutting . . and vaporing are present participles, relating to satirist. 

in an empty school is the complement of strutting and vaporing. 



PARSING. 185 

made (in the sixth line) is connected by and to has spent, and is in 

the same condition, mood, tense and agreement with that 
verb, " the satirist has made.^^ 

I say This little sentence is thrown in to take up anew the connec- 
tion between j)wZj9zf and pulpit, already somewhat weakened 
by the intervention of the two parenthetical sentences. 

the pulpit . . (seventh line) is a repetition of the same word in the first 
and fourth lines. [All the succeeding parenthetical words, 
*'in the sober use of its legitimate, peculiar powers," are 
only a complement to pulpit.'] 

must stand . is an irregular intransitive verb, potential mood, present 
tense, and agrees with pulpit. Must stand, here, is quite a 
copula, scarcely superior to must he; the word stand is a little 
stronger, and it comes in with force, when taken with the 
repetition, (the world shall) stand. 

acknowledged is a perfect participle, referring to pulpit. 

while is an adverb, relating to must stand and shall stand, and 

showing a continuous action or existence. 

world is in the nominative case to shall stand. 

guard .... support and ornament are nouns, in the nominative case after 
to he, understood: " The pulpit shall stand acknowledged to 
he the guard," &c. 

of virtue^ s cause is the complement of guard, support and ornament. 



The following, from Dr. Young's "Night Thoughts," contains exam- 
ples of a broken style, which may appear difficult of analysis and 
arrangement : 

She (for I know not yet her name in heaven) 
Not early, like Narcissus, left the scene ; 
Nor sudden, like Philander. What avail? 
This seeming mitigation but inflames ; 
This fancied medicine heightens the disease. 
The longer known, the closer still she grew, 
And gradual parting is a gradual death. 

The passage quoted may be rendered in the following manner : 
As the name which the person bears in heaven is not known, allusion 
is made to her only by the pronoun she. ''She left the scene (of life) not 
early, like Narcissus, nor sudden/?/, like Philander. Of what avail (are 
these circumstances) ? This seeming mitigation but (only) inflames ; the 
fancied medicine heightens the disease. The longer (she was) known, the 
closer still she grew (to our affections) ; and gradual parting is a gradual 
death." 

16* Q2 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

She is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, temi- 

nine gender, nominative case to left. 

for is equivalent to because, and it supplies the place of many- 
words, and is used as if the writer should say, ^^She, and I 
use that word because I know not yet her name in heaven ;" 
it is a conjunctive adverb, connecting the sentence which is 
supplied, and qualifying the verbs use and know. 
The remainder of the quotation is easily parsed, when the sense is 

understood. 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

Advise if this be worth 
Attempting, or to sit in darkness here, 
Hatching vain empires. Milton. 

The conjunction of doubt is whether, having or for a correspondent; 
whether should, therefore, be used in the place of if. 

I 'd rather be a dog, and bay the moon. 
Than such a Roman. Shakspeaue. 

I^d is incorrect, unless we consider it a contraction of I would, and not 
I had. 

It had been so with us, had we been there : 

His liberty is full of threats to all. Shakspeare. 

This said, he sat, and expectation held 
His look suspense, awaiting who appear'd 
To second, or oppose, or undertake 
The perilous attempt. Milton. 

appeared ... is a regular verb, in the indicative mood, past tense. [The 
sense, however, is not declarative ; the indicative mood is, 
consequently, improperly used ; the tense, too, is equally 
incorrect.] 

Let me look back upon tbee, O ! thou wall 

That girdest in those wolves ! dive in the earth. 

And fence not Athens. Shakspeare. 

The poor family, who were gone to bed, had been with difficulty 
awakened. The mother had escaped by throwing herself from a window ; 
she then recollected that, in her extreme terror, she had left her child in 
bed. Hannah More. 



PARSING. 187 

And now, you'd think, 'twixt you and I, 
That things were ripe for a reply. Moore. 

O, that men should put an enemy in their mouths, to steal away their 
brains. Shakspeare. 

Let thou and I the battle try, 

And set our men aside ; 
Accursed be he. Lord Percy said, 
By whom it is denied. Chevy Chase. 

She has brought me to the crisis, he muttered. She or I are lost. There 
was something, I know not if it was fear or pity, that prompted me to 
avoid this fatal crisis. It is now decided : she or I must perish. 

Scott. 

Sweet sleep thee, brave ! in solemn chant shall sound 
Celestial vespers o'er thy sacred ground. Paine. 

I doubt whether his devoutest admirer could approach the Avon with a 
worthier homage than he presents, who ventures to doubt whether, in 
truth and pathos, Euripides be superior to Shakspeare. Selfridge. 

I intended to have written to you before I left London ; but I was taken 
ill here, and by imprudently attempting a journey to Oxfordshire, in order 
to be ready to attend my duty there, I became much worse. 

Bishop Lowth. 

No sooner had th' Almighty ceased, but all 

The multitude of angels, with a shout, 

Loud as from numbers without number, sweet 

As from blest voices uttering joy. Milton. 

I had not the pleasure, which you were so kind as to design for me, of 
seeing Mr. Moore. I suppose he did not arrive till after I was gone into 
the country. Lowth. 

Could my nature e'er 

Have brook' d injustice, or the doing wrong, 

I need not now thus low have bent myself, 

To gain a hearing from a cruel father. Otway. 

When you first came home from travel. 

With such hopes as made you look'd on 

By all men's eyes. Otway. 

These needy persons do not know what to talk of, till about twelve 
o'clock in the morning; for, by that time, they are pretty good judges of 
the weather, know which way the wind sits, and whether the Dutch mail 
be come in. Addison. 



PROSODY. 



Under this head, it is proposed to give a cursory view of the 
accent, quantity, emphasis and measure of verse, or the rules 
of versification, 

ACCENT. 

Accent is the stress on a syllable, or letter. Thus, in the 
word grammarian^ the second syllable is accented : 

Gram-MK' -ri-an. 
Forsook, older, confine; in the last word, the letter i is accented. 

Every word of more than one syllable has an accented syllable ; and 
words of many syllables (that is, polysyllables) are thought to have a semi- 
accent on one syllable ; as, content poR a' neous; here, the second syllable 
seems to have a stress, which writers have called a se?wz-accent, or second- 
ary accent. Writers of great talents and observation have laid down rules 
for accents ; but, in a language compounded like ours, the exceptions seem 
almost to equal the instances that belong to the rule. 

QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is required to 

pronounce it. 

A syllable may be long or short. Hate is long, as the vowel a is 
elongated by the final e; hat is short, and requires about half the time for 
pronunciation which is used in pronouncing hate. 

Long. Short. 

Ate At 

Bate Bat 

Cure Cur 

The use of short and long syllables has a very important effect upon 

sense. 

*' Run quickly to help him." 

These words represent haste ; whereas, without increasing the number 

of syllables, a slower movement can be indicated by the use of the long 

syllable, or the long vowel ; thus, 

*' Drag four long chains.'* 

088) 



PROSODY. 189 

Though unaccented syllables are usually short, yet many of those which 
are accented are short also. The following are short: advent, sm'ner, 
sup'per. 

In the following, the unaccented syllables are long : also, exile, gan- 
grene, umpire. 

It may be remarked, that the quantity of a syllable is short when the 
accent is on the consonant ; as, art', bon'net, hun'ger. 

The hyphen (-), placed over a syllable, denotes that it is long: na'ture. 
The breve C) over a syllable, denotes that it is short ; as, detract. 

EMPHASIS. 

The term emphasis is used to denote a fuller sound of voice 

after certain words that come in antithesis ; that is, contrast. 

" He can write, but he cannot read.''^ 

Here, read andiwrite are antithetical (that is, in contrast), and are accented, 
or emphasized. 

** Though deep, yet clear. ^^ 

It may be remarked that emphasis has nearly the same reference to a 
word, in relation to a sentence, which accent has in reference to letters or 
syllables, in regard to words. 

Great care should be taken to avoid a multiplicity of emphatic words ; 
they mar the beauty of the sentence, and weary the ear. 

The emphasis frequently serves to change not only the quantity of a 
syllable, but frequently the seat of accent, when caused by antithesis: 
" He must mcrease, while I must decrease." 
*' He rather resented than co;^sented." 
" To hear and to /orbear." 
*' To give and to /orgive." 
Sometimes a sentence contains several antitheses, one set of which is 
usually superior to the other ; the emphasis in such a case will be propor- 
tioned to the comparative importance of the antithesis. 

What STRONGER breastplate than a heart untainted ? 
THRICE is he armed that hath his quarrel just, 
And he but naked, though locked up in STEEL, 
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 

Emphasis is an important regulation of quantity, because the quantity 
which is usually found in unconnected words is mutable, and liable to be 
changed from long to short, or from short to long, when under emphasis. 

ALLITERATION. 

Alliteration signifies the frequent recurrence of the same 
letter, or sound ; as. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

*' Up the high JiiW he heawes a 7mge round stone." 
" ^pt alliteration's artful aid." 
*'TFeave the tcarp, and lueave the i^oof." 

VERSIFICATION. 

By versification is understood a measured arrangement of 
words, in which the accent is made to occur at certain intervals. 

This applies particularly to versification of modern languages. In the 
Latin and Greek languages, there is a regular recurrence of long syllables j 
in conformity with established laws, which, in those languages, constitutes 
verse. We distinguish two kinds of verse in the English language — 
rhyme and hlank verse. 

Verse in rhyme has a corresponding sound in the last syllable, or last 
emphatic syllable, of the verses. 

EXAMPLES. 

Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 
All but the page prescribed — their present state. 

Or, in shorter verse. 

Should invasion impend. 
Every grove would descend, 
From the hill-top it shades, our shores to defend. 

BlanTi verse is without rhyme : 

'Tis pleasant, through the loopholes of retreat, 
To peep at such a world ; to see the stir 
Of the great Babel, and not feel the crowd ; 
To hear the roar she sends through all her gates 
At a safe distance, where the dying sound 
Falls a soft murmur on the uninjured ear. 

Blank verse is usually written in lines of ten syllables. Rhymed verse 
may consist of any number of syllables. 
By verse is meant a line of poetry ; as, 

See through this air, this ocean, and this earth. 
A hemistich is half a verse : 

Vast chain of being 

A couplet, or distich, consists of two verses : 

Hope springs eternal in the human breast ; 
Man never is, but always to be blest. 
A triplet consists of three verses : 

And there the fallen chief is laid, 
In tasselled garb of skins arrayed, 
And girded with his wampum braid. 



PROSODY. 191 

A stanza, or stave, is composed of several verses, varying in number, 
and constituting a regular division of the poem ; thus, 

Amidst the storm they sang, 

And the stars heard, and the sea ; 
And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rang 

To the anthem of the free. 



OF FEET. 

Afoot is a rhythmical division of a verse. The variety of feet gives 
character and name to the verse. The following line contains four feet : 

Amid the strings his fingers strayed. 

There are eight kinds of feet, four containing two syllables, and four 
containing three syllables. They are as follows : the Trochee, the Iam- 
bus, the Spondee, and the Pyrrhic. 

DISSYLLABLES, OR OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

A Trochee, ~ " ; as, season. 
An Iambus, "^ ' ; as, defeat. 
A Spondee, " ' ; as, I5ng way. 
A Pyrrhic, " " ; as, inter (fere). 

TRISYLLABLES, OR OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

A Dactyl, ' " '' ; as, exercise. 
An Amphibrach, " " ^ ; as, decision. 
An Anapaest, " " ' ; as, contravene. 
A Tribrach, " " "; as, (inter) mmable. 

Of Feet of Two Syllables. 

1. The Trochee has the first syllable long, and thp second short ; as, 
baneful, sermon, filter. 

2. The Iambus has the first syllable short, and the second long; as, 
condense, silrvey, behind, defraud. 

3. The Spondee has both syllables long ; as, pale m5on, warm noon, 
dark night. 

4. A Pyrrhic has both syllables short ; as, on the (tall tree). 

Of Feet of Three Syllables, 

1. The Dactyl has the first syllable long, and the last two short ; as, 
la-bor-er, en-e-my, prob-a-ble. 

2. The Amphibrach has the first and third syllable short, and the 
second long ; as, com-plete-ly, dis-creet-ly, in autumn. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Anapaest has the first two syllables short, and the third syllable 
long; as, disappear. 

4. The Tribrach consists of three short syllables; as, (nu)merable, 
^imper) ishable. 

It may be remarked, that the larnbus. Dactyl, Trochee and Anapaest 
are sometimes called principal feet, because poems may be almost entirely 
formed of them. 

In order to test the scholar's understanding of these definitions, let him 
mention the class of feet to which each of the following words belongs : 



Andiron 


Doctor 


Decant 


Censure 


Eminent 


Fugitive 


Incomplete 


Winter 


Delight 


Defective 


October 


Medallion 


Attentive 


Terrible 


Agony 


Enervate 



A complete verse is called acatalectic; one which is deficient in any part 
is called catalectic; one which has a redundant syllable is called hyperme- 
ter, or hyper catalectic. 

SCANNING. 

Scanning is the resolving of verses into the several feet of which they 
are composed, and bears a relation to versification, like that which parsing 
bears to etymology and syntax. As by foot is understood a combination 
of syllables with regard to their length, it may be proper to repeat that a 
long syllable is marked thus ("), and a short syllable thus (") ; for exam- 
ple, destroy, nation. 

The different combinations of these syllables constitute the varieties of 
feet. In other languages, the Greek and Latin particularly, there is avast 
number of feet. In the English language, though most of these may be 
found, many of them are combinations of other feet. 

English poetry is usually scanned with the Iambus, the Trochee, and 
the Anapaest. 

Of Iambic Verse, 

The pure Iambic verses have no other feet than the Iambic, and are 
uniformly accented on the second, fourth, sixth, and the other even 
syllables. 

1. Iambic verse of one foot: 

In sight, 
At night. 



2. Of two feet : 



3. Of three feet ; 



Oiir spoil I IS won, 
Oiir task | is done. 



To giiide | their way, | appears 
The light I of oth | er spheres. 



PROSODY. 193 

4. Of four feel ; in which measure, Sir Walter Scott wrote much of his 
poetry. 

Our v6i I ces took | a drea | ry tdne, 
An ech | o of | the diin | geon stone. 

5. Of five feet : 

For me I your trib | uta | ry stores | combine. 

This is what is called the heroic measure^ and is commonly used in epic 
poetry. The following are the first two lines of a translation of Homer's 
Iliad: 

Achil I les' wrath | to Greece | the dire | f iil spring 
Of w5es I iinnum | ber'd, heav'n | ly god | dess, sing. 

It will be seen that the terminating syllable is long; though, occasionally, 
the measure is varied by a hypermeter, or excessive syllable ; and some- 
times even the first syllable is long : 

A guard | ian an | gel o'er | his life | presid | ing, 
Doubling \ his plea | sures, and | his cares | divid | ing. 

It frequently happens that a stanza, or a continued strain, of this mea- 
sure, is closed by a verse of six Iambuses. The concluding line is called 
an Alexandrine. 

A need | less Al | exan | drine ends | the song. 

Which like | a wound | ed snake | drags its | slow length | along. 

The Iambic measure is not confined to any particular number oi feet; 
but it requires the alternate long syllable. 

An additional short syllable may be added to each of the species of 
Iambic verse ; thus, 

1. Complain | ing. 

2. Upon I a mount | ain. 

3. Alone | upon | her pil | low. 

4. But come, | thou god | dess free | and gen | tie. 

5. Who comes | in tears | shall jour | ney in ( displea | sure. 

6. He spake | and joy | suffused | the face | of her | that aid | ed. 

7. To save | the souls | of men | he came, | to snatch | them from [ 

death's pow | er. 
There are various kinds of stanzas composed of Iambic verses. 

ELEGIAC STANZA. 

An elegiac stanza is said to consist of four heroic verses, or lines, rhym- 
mg alternately : 

Here rests | his head | upon | the lap | of earthy 

A youth I to for | tune and | to fame | unknown ; 
Fair sci | ence frowned | not on | his hum | ble hirth^ 
And mel | ancho I ly mark'd |-him for | her own. 
13 R 



J 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SPENSERIAN STANZA. 

This Stanza is so denominated from the author, Spenser, who wrote 
much in that particular combination of verse ; each stanza consists of eight 
heroic verses, followed by an Alexandrine. It is also remarkable of this 
stanza, that the first verse is made to rhyme with the third ; the second 
with the fourth, fifth and seventh ; and the sixth with the eighth and ninth. 

Nought under heaven so strongly doth allure 
The sence of man, and all his minde possesse, 
As Beauties lovely baite, that doth procure 
Great warriours oft their rigour to represse, 
And mighty hands forget their manlinesse ; 
Drawn© with the powre of an heart -robbing eye, 
And wrapt in fetters of a golden tresse, 
That can with melting pleasaunce mollifye 
Their hardned hearts, enur'd to bloud and cruelty. 

Spenser's Fairie Queene. 

The spelling of many of the words in the above quotation is antique ; 
but the measure is forcible, and the expression full of weight. The fol- 
lowing is another sample of the same species of stanza : 

Can tyrants but by tyrants conquer'd be. 
And Freedom find no champion and no child, 
Such as Columbia saw arise, when she 
Sprung forth a Pallas, armed and undefiled ? 
Or must such minds be nourished in the wild, 
Deep in the unpruned forest, mid the roar 
Of cataracts, where nursing nature smiled 
On infant Washington ? Has earth no more 
Such seeds within her breast, or Europe no such shore ? 

Byron. 

Iambic verse of four feet occurs in psalms and hymns, and is usually 
denominated common metre. 

So pil I grims on | the scorch ] ing sand, 

Beneath | a burn | ing sky, 
Long for | a cool | ing stream | at hand, 

And they | must drink | or die. 

Long metre has four Iambuses : 

Life is I the time | to serve | the Lord, 
The time | t' ensure | the great | reward. 

What is called short metre has three Iambuses in the first, second and 
fourth verses, or lines, and four in the third. 



PROSODY. 195 

Here fix | my rov | ing heart, 
Here wait | my warm | est love, 
Till our I commu j nion be | complete 
In no I bier scenes | above. 

There is a stanza called particular metre, which is composed of lam 

buses ; thus. 

The warb | ling notes | pursue, * 

And loud | er an | thems raise, 

While mor | tals sing | with you 

To our j Redeem | er's praise ; 

And then | my heart. 

With e I qual flame, 

And joy | the same, | perform | thy part. 

Of Trochaic Verse. 

The Trochaic is the Iambic, deficient in its first syllable ; it is of two 
syllables, and has its first syllable long, and the last syllable short. The 
verse is as follows : 

^ Trembling, hoping, ling'ring, flying. 

Oh ! the pain, the bliss of dying. 
There are various kinds of trochaic verse. The first contains a trochee 
and a half, or rather an additional syllable, or hypermeter; like, 

1. Spirits I rise, 
Hope de | part. 

2. The following is an example of two trochees : 

Spirits I rising, 
Souls siir | pristng. 

An additional syllable is sometimes used in the second form s 

Gather | reason | where 
First you | felt the | tear. 

3. The third species is formed of three trochees : 

Ever I round our | altar. 
This form admits of an additional syllable : 

Cease, fond | nature, | cease thy [ strife. 

4. The fourth kind of trochaic verse consists of four syllables i 

Linger, | gentle | spirit, | near us. 
An additional syllable is seldom used in this kind of trochaic. 

5. The fifth kind of trochaic is composed of five trochees ; it is seldom 
used, unless it be in some facetious or ironical composition: 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

All that I walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 
All that I dwell in | pala | ces or | garrets. 

6. The sixth species of trochaic verse is composed of six trochees : 

On a I mountain | stretchM be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow. 

AnapcBstic Verse. ' 

This verse is composed of Anapcests; that is, feet of two short and one 
long syllable ; as. 

At the close | of the day | when the ham | let is still. 

Verses composed of single Anapaests are frequently found in stanzas of 
songs ; and the same is true of several of the other kinds of feet ; but we 
may consider the first form of anapaestic verse as consisting of two 
Anapaests : 

Where the siin | loves to pause 

With so f5nd | a delay, 
That the night | only draws 
A thm veil | o'er the day. 

An additional syllable may be admitted in this form : 

He IS g5ne | on the m5unt | ain, 

He IS lost I to the for | est, 
Like a siim \ mer dried fount | ain, 

When oiir need | was the s5r | est. 

2. A very agreeable effect is produced by the use of the second form 
of this measure, which is composed of three Anapaests ; thus, 

ye w^oods, | spread your branch | es apace — 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 

1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, 

I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 

3. The third form consists of four Anapaests : 

For the field | of the dead | rushes red | on my sight, 
And the clans | of Cullo | den are scat | ter'd in fight. 

Or, with an additional syllable, 

On the cold | cheek of death | smiles and ro | ses are blend | ing. 

Dactylic Verse, 

Dactylic feet are rarely used alone in composition, in our language. 
There are, however, a few specimens to be found ; as. 

From the low | pleasiires of | this fallen | nature. 



PROSODY. 197 

Warriors and | chiefs ! should the | shaft or the | sword 
Pierce me while | leading the | hosts of the | Lord. 

Bird of the | wilderness, 

Blithesome and | cumberless, 
Sweet be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea. 

Emblem of | happiness, 

Blest is thy | dwelling-place — 
O ! to a I bide in the | desert with | thee ! 

OF COMBINATION. 

The various kinds of verse which w^e have noticed, viz., the Iambic, 
the Trochaic, and the Anapaest, admit of frequent intermixtures : 

Solemn, \ biit b5ld, | the man | of God | appears. 

The first foot (solemn) in the above line is a trochee ; the remainder of the 
verse is iambic. 

Might learn | from the wis | dom of age. 

In this quotation, might learn is an iambus, and the remaining feet are 
anapassts. 

The intermixture of feet in a verse is resorted to by poets to suit the 
movement, or measure, to the sense. The change caused by secondary 
feet is sometimes very sudden. An examination of more extended trea- 
tises will be useful and agreeable ; meantime, it is hoped the scholar will 
be aided, in obtaining a proper appreciation of the powers and capabilities 
of the English language, by the simplicity and constant repetition which 
characterise this elementary work. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

Pauses are a total cessation of voice, while speaking or reading. There 
are two kinds of pause — one for sense, and one for melody ; these are per- 
fectly distinct from each other. The pause for sense is called the Senten- 
tial Pause; that for melody, is called the Harmonic Pause. 

The Sentential Pauses are those indicated by the signs of punctuation, 
viz., the comma, semicolon, colon and period. 

The Harmonic Pauses have reference to the rhythm of the verse ; they 
are divided into the Fijial Pause and the Ccesural Pause. These occa- 
sionally coincide with the Sentential Pause, though frequently they exist 
independently ; that is, a pause is made in reading, w^hich is not indicated 
by the relations of words, or the sense of the sentence. 

Fin a I Pause, 

The Filial Pause occurs at the end of the verse which it closes, even 
though the sense is continued to the next line. 
17* h2 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When there is not much regard to close measure, the very idea of verse 
is preserved by the final pause; w^ithout which, the composition would 
sink into a kind of half-measured prose. Take the oft-repeated example 
from Milton : 

*' Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose 
mortal taste brought death into the world and all our wo, with loss of 
Eden, till one greater man restore us, and regain the blissful seat ; sing, 
heavenly muse." 

The above is the opening of Milton's sublimest poem ; yet it sounds 
like prose. If read with a due regard to the final pause, however, it is 
more poetical : 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo. 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat: 
Sing, heavenly muse. 

Ccesural Pause, 

The CcBsural Pause preserves the melody, without interfering with the 
sense. The reason that the sense is not aflfected by the Ccesural Pause 
is, that there is no change of voice; only a cessation. 

The CcBsura, or Ccesural Pause, has relation to the melody, and is as 
follows : 

Ask for what end' the heavenly bodies shine. 

Here, the ccesural pause is after the word end. 

The pause does not return upon the same syllable, even in the same 
kind of verse. In heroic verse, it is usually on the fourth, fifth, or sixth 
syllable. We mark the ccesura by two accents ("). 

1 2 3 4 

Know then thyself;" presume not God to scan ; 

12 3 4 5 

The proper study" of mankind is man. 

12 3 4 5 6 

A Being darkly wise," and rudely great. 

Demi'CCBsural Pause. 

There is also a division of the ccesura, called the Demi-ccesura, which 
divides the line into four parts. The demi-ccesura is marked with one 

accent ('). 

Placed' on an isthmus" of a middle' state, 
A Being' darkly wise" and rudely' great. 

Sometimes, the regular returns of the ccesura and demi-ccesura give 
remarkable sweetness to the movement of the verse : 



PROSODY. 199 

Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeee, 

Glows' in the stars," and blossoms" in the trees ; 

Lives' through all lives," extends through' all extent, 

Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent; 

Breathes' in our souls," informs our' mortal part. 

As full,' as perfect," in a hair' as heart ; 

As full,' as perfect," in vile man' that mourns, 

As in' the seraph" that adores' and burns. 
In the first five lines, the first demi-ccBSural pause is after the first 
syllable; in the last two, it follows the second syllable; but the first 
syllable of the sixth and seventh lines is short. 

REOPITULATORY EXERCISES. 

What do you understand by accent ? 

Give some examples. 

Have all words of more than one syllable an accented syllable ? 

What do you understand by a secondary accent ? 

What is understood by quantity ? 

How do you reckon quantity ? (By long and short syllables.) 

Of what use are long and short syllables ? 

Are unaccented syllables ever long ? 

How is the quantity when the accent is on a consonant ? 

How do you mark a long syllable ? 

How do you mark a short syllable ? 

What is EMPHASIS ? 

How do emphasis and accent resemble each other ? 

Does emphasis ever change the quantity of a syllable ? 

Does emphasis ever change the seat of accent ? 

Under what circumstances ? 

How v/ould the accent be in those words without emphasis ? 

What is ALLITERATION ? 

What do you understand by versification? 

How many kinds of vers^ do you distinguish? 

What are they ? 

What is verse, or rhyme ? 

What is blank verse ? 

How many syllables are usual in each line of blank verse ? 

What do you understand by verse? 

What do you understand by a hemistich? 

What is a couplet, or distich ? 

What is a triplet ? 

What is a stanza, or stave ? 

What do you understand by feet in poetry ? 

How many kinds of feet are reckoned ? 

What are thev ? 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which of these are of two syllables ? 

How do you distinguish the trochee ? 

How do you distinguish the iambus ? 

How do you distinguish the spondee ? 

How do you distinguish the pyrrhic ? 

What are the feet of three syllables ? 

How do you distinguish the dactyl ? 

How do you distinguish the amphibrach ? 

How do you distinguish the anapaest ? 

How do you distinguish the tribrach ? 

What are feet that are called principal ? 

What do you call a complete verse ? 

What do you call a verse deficient in some part ? 

What do you call a verse with a redundant syllable ? 

What is SCANNING- ? 

What do you say of pure iambic verses ? 

How are they accented ? 

Give examples of an iambic verse of different numbers of feet. 

In what number of feet is heroic measure usually written? 

What do you say of the terminating syllable ? 

Give an example oi hypermeter. 

What do you call a line of six iambics ? 

Give an example. 

Can you add an additional short syllable to any species of iambic 

verse ? 
Give an example of the hypermeter. 
What is an elegiac stanza ? 

From whom does the Spenserian stanza derive its name ? 
What constitutes a Spenserian stanza? 
Give examples of this measure. 
What do you say of iambic verses of four feet ? 
What number of feet has the long measure ? 
How do you dispose of the iambics in short metre ? 
What do you say of the trochaic verse ? 
Give examples of the different kinds of this measure. 
What do you know of anapaestic verse ? 
Give examples. 

Of what does anapaestic verse consist ? 
Give examples of the different kinds of anapaestic verse. 
Of what does dactylic verse consist? 
Scan the specimens given. 

Do the various kinds of verse admit of combination, or intermixture ? 
Scan the line, or verse, and tell of what feet it is composed. 
What do you understand by a poetic pause ? 
How many kinds of pauses are there, and what are their names? 
What do you call the pause for sense ? 



PROSODY. 201 

How do you denominate the pause for melody ? 

What are sentential pauses ? 

What are harmonic pauses ? 

How many kinds of harmonic pauses are there, and what are they? 

Do these harmonic pauses ever correspond with the sentential 

pauses ? 
Where does the final pause occur ? 

Do you use the final pause, even though the sense is incomplete ? 
Of what use is the final pause ? 
What is the caesural pause ? 

Why is not the sense affected by a csesural pause ? 
To what does the caesural pause relate ? 

Does the caesura return upon the same syllable in each verse ? 
How is the caesura marked ? 
Where is the caesural pause in heroic verse ? 
What office does the demi-caesural pause perform ? 
How is the demi-caesura marked ? 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written sentences by par 
ticular signs or points, for the purpose of distinguishing with 
precision the meaning which the author intends to convey. 

The signs, or marks, are thus denominated: 

, comma. — dash. 

; semicolon. ? note of interrogation. 

: colon. ! note of admiration. 

, period. ( ) parentheses. 

COMMA. 

1. The comma is used when the complement precedes its primary 
sentence ; as, 

*' With these prospects, he left his country." 
•' In this dim cave, a Druid sleeps." 
" Of man, what shall I sing?" 

2. When several important complements occur in succession, they are 
not only separated from the verb, but from each other ; as, 

"We may find that a broad river, or a lofty chain of mountains, by 
stopping the march of war or of emigration, becomes the boundary, not 
of governments merely, but of languages and literature, of institutions 
and character." 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. When the verb follows the complement of its nominative case, it 
is preceded by the comma ; as, 

** The indifference of a cherished friend, is the highest mortification to 
a sensitive mind." 

4. When the complement of a transitive verb precedes its objective 
case, it should be preceded and followed by the comma ; as, 

*' I remember, with gratitude, all your favors." 

b. The nominative case, independent, if it begins a sentence, is fol- 
lowed by the comma ; as, 

"My child, follow these precepts." 

If the nominative case, independent, should occur in the middle of a sen- 
tence, it should be preceded and followed by the comma ; as, 

- 1 am, dear sir, your affectionate friend." 

"Yet marvel not, Sir Childe, that I 
Am sorrowful in mind." 

*' For thou, my lyre, and thou, my heart, 
Shall never more in spirit part." 

6. When the conjunctions are omitted, the comma is added ; as, 

"Art, glory, freedom fail, but nature still is fair." 

7. Almost every species of ellipsis, requires the comma ; as, 

-' The man, tainted with sin, turns, with disgust, from holiness." 

8. Nouns in apposition, having adjectives, should be separated by the 
comma; as, 

" Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia, did much to advance civilization." 

9. Nouns in apposition, without the complement, seldom require the 
comma; as, 

" My brother Edward has arrived." 

10. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some 
marked variety, they require to be distinguished by the comma; as, 

" Though deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 

" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in 
union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." 

11. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, noWj 
lastly, once more, above all, and all other words of the same kind, and pro- 
nouns of a similar import, must be separated from the context by a 
comma; as. 



PROSODY. 203 

** Nay, do not shudder at my tale ; 
Thoagh dark the shade, yet safe the vale." 

• Secondly, we propose answering the usual objections.'* 

** Formerly, her southern boundaries extended only to the Floridas.'* 
** In the first place, we are instructed by him in our relative duties." 

In most of the foregoing rules and examples, great regard must be paid 
to the length of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one 
another. 

An attention to the real sense of the passage, and to the clear and per- 
spicacious communication of it, will, with the aid of the preceding rules, 
enable the student to ascertain the places for inserting the comma. 

SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is inserted after a part of a compound sentence, which 
makes complete sense ; as, 

"Hope leads us to the grave ; and Charity attends us to heaven." 

** The feelings which animated him, were his life ; the very essence of 

that existence which he prized." 

" The path of truth is a plain and safe path ; but that of falsehood is a 

perplexing maze." 

'* Thus with delight we linger to survey 
The promised joys of life's unmeasured way; 
Thus, from afar, each dim-discovered scene 
More pleasing seems than all the past hath been ; 
And every form, that fancy can repair 
From dark oblivion, seems more pleasing there." 

13. Sentences which would require a period, if alone, should be marked 
by the semicolon, when they serve to continue an idea; as, 

' ' His learning was pedantry ; his charity, ostentation ; his humility, 
deceit ; and his whole deportment, hypocrisy." 

" Heaven is the region of gentleness and peace ; hell, of fierceness and 
animosity." 

COLON. 

14. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less 
connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, but not entirely 
independent; as, 

* The well-bred man desires to please: the coxcomb, to shine." 

** When we look forward to the year which is beginning, what do we 
behold there ? All, my brethren, is a blank to our view : a dark unknown 
presents itself." 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

15. The colon is used when one clause of the sentence is a deduction 
from the other ; as, 

"Do not flatter yourself with an idea of perfect happiness : there is no 
such thing on earth." 

" Rebuke the erring in private: public reproof hardens." 

16. The colon is also used in introducing a quotation ; as, 

*' One cannot go wrong for examples in any part of the book; and at 
the first opening, the following instance meets the eye : 

" Nathos clothed his limbs in shining steel. The stride of the chief is 
lovely: the joy of his eye, terrible. The wind rustles in his hair. Dar- 
thula is silent at his side: her look is fixed on the chief." 

" He rose amid the throng, and thus began: 
Assembled peers of this our middle state." 

17. But when a quotation is brought in obliquely, by the conjunction 
that, the comma is used ; as, 

" Whatever you may think of wealth. Pope says, that virtue alone is 
happiness below." 

18. When the sentences, separated by a colon, are connected by adverbs 
or conjunctions, the colon might in general give place to the semicolon. 

PERIOD. 

19. The period, or full point, marks a full and independent sentence ; as, 

** Fear God." 

** Never neglect the performance of a duty." 

"There were, surely, always pretenders in science and literature, in 
every age of the world; nor must we suppose, because their works and 
their names have perished, that they existed in a smaller proportion, for- 
merly, than now." 

20. The period should always be used after an abbreviated word ; as, 
"Geo. Washington;" "M.C.;" "O.S.;" "MSS.;" " Nem. con. ;" 

"Va.;" "Mass." 

DASH. 

21. The dash is used when the sentence terminates abruptly; as, 

" Here lies the great — false marble, where? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

It is also used when a significant pause is required ; as, 

* * With all his might and main, 

March'd up the hill, and then— march'd down again." 



, PROSODY. 205 

22. The dash is sometimes used after the comma, when the pause is to 
continue to an unusual length, and also when some words are omitted ; as, 

"Beauty and strength, combined with virtue and piety, — how lovely in 
the sight of men!" 

" Something there is more needful than expense, 
And something previous ev'n to taste ; — 'tis sense.** 

NOTE OP INTERROGATION. 

23. The note of interrogation is used at the end of a sentence wnich 
asks a question; as, 

"Who wrote the book?" 

** Will they produce many specimens like these ?" 

** Shall we grow weary in our watch, 
And murmur at the long delay ? 
Impatient of our Father's time, 
And His appointed way?" 

24. Sentences apparently interrogative in their construction, but which 
are used only to declare that a person asked a question, do not require the 
point of interrogation ; as, 

" The people were not a little alarmed at the phenomenon; one, how- 
ever, gathered courage sufficient to ask me how I could sail in the air !^^ 

To be interrogative, the conclusion of this sentence should stand thus: 
"How can you sail in the air ?" 

NOTE OF ADMIRATION. 

The note of admiration is used in some sudden exclamation of surprise, 
joy, grief, fear, &c. ; as, 

"Ah!" "Alas!" "Amazement!" "Are we yet alive !" 
" What a wondrous favor !" " Oh, hope ! 'twas all deceit !" 

24. This sign is also employed in addressing a person or an object with 
emotion ; as, 

" Glenara ! Glenara ! now read me my dream !'* 

"A wretch ! said they, the bird to slay. 
That made the breeze to blow !" 

" Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean— roll !" 

PARENTHESIS. 

25. A parenthesis is a clause containing some information, or useful 
remark, which may be omitXed without injuring the construction ; as, 

18 S 



206 ENGLISH GRAMIV^AR. 

"And if, as I doubt not, France, at this time, is more virtuous (not- 
withstanding the demoralizing effects of the Revolution and its wars) than 
at any former period, it is owing to the diffusion of knowledge which has 
followed the subversion of feudalism, and the regeneration of the pro- 
vinces." 

*' Nighi visions may befriend : (as sung above :) 
Our waking dreams are fatal ! How I dreamt 
Of things impossible ! (Could sleep do more ?) 
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change !" 

** The cottage gleaming near the tuft of trees, 

Where fancy sees 

(For credulous fancy still her dreams will weave) 
Him whose low fate no restless cares deceive." 

26. It will be noticed that the use of this sign does not supersede the 
necessity of the others. 

27. Sentences dependent on the relative pronoun, should not be included 
in the parentheses. 

OTHER SIGNS. 

The following signs and marks are likewise in use : 

Apostrophe ' Index ^!fCr 

Quotation ** " Paragraph ^ 

Hyphen - Section ^ 

Breve o Asterisk * 

Caret a Asterism *^* 

Diarsesis ** Ellipsis • 

Brackets [ ] Brace } 

Acute accent ' Dagger t 

Grave accent ^ Double dagger t 
Parallel II 

28. The apostrophe is used in the contraction of words ; as, declined for 
declined; His for it is; tho' for though; we! re for we are. 

It is also used in the formation of possessives ; as, Johrt's, mother*Sf 
the boy's. Both these uses are exemplified in the following lines : 

** By human pride or cunning driven 
To mis'ry's brink." 

29. The quotation marks a sentence which is borrowed ; as, 

**A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

30. The hyphen is employed in connecting compound words ; as, low- 
voiced, myrtle-wreath, to-morrow, mother-in-law. 

It is also used when a word is so divided that the former part ends one 



PROSODY. 207 

line, and the latter begins the next. The hyphen should, in this case, 
terminate the first line, and not begin the second. 

31. The diaraesis placed over one vowel gives it a sound independent 
of the other letters accompanying it; as, idea, At, Caen, 

** But kind Eetion, touching on the shore. 
The ransom'd prince to fair Arisbe bore." 

32. Brackets enclose a word or sentence intended to give some expla- 
nation, supply some deficiency, or rectify some mistake ; as, 

**The party shall march out with the honors of war, [not agreed to,] 
colors flying, &c.'* 

** The man was taken to the [city] hospital." 
*' The book was stole [stolen] ." 

The bracket and parenthesis are frequently used indiscriminately in 
printing. 

33. The acute accent is used to mark a rising, and the grave a falling 
inflection of the voice ; as, 

'* Will you read, or write ?" 

34. The index (D^) directs to something remarkable. 

The paragraph (IT), when used, is placed at the beginning of a new 
subject of discourse. 

The section (§) marks a small division of a discourse, chapter, or work. 

The asterisk (*) serves as a reference. 

The asterism (*^*) is placed before a long note, without a reference. 

The ellipsis ( ), or several asterisks (****), denote the omission of 

some part of a word or sentence ; as, 

"Mr. M was there." 

" I saw him at the th****e." 

The brace ( } ) connects two or more lines with each other, or with 
something that has a dependence on them. 

The dagger (t), the double dagger (t), the parallel (II), the numeral 
figures, letters of the alphabet, and many of the preceding signs, are used 
for marginal references. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The scholar should begin with a capital letter : 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, note, or any piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; and, if two sentences are totally inde- 
pendent, after a note of interrogation; as, 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Behold, yon breathing prospect bids the Muse 
Throw all her beauty forth. But who can paint 
Like nature ? Can imagination boast, 
Amid its gay creation, hues like hers?" 

3. The appellations of Deity ; as, God, Jehovah, Supreme Being, Lord, 
Providence. 

4. All proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, 
ships, &c. ; as, George, Philadelphia, Cornhill, Alleghany, Delaware, 
Tuscarora. 

5. All adjectives derived from proper names ; as, Grecian, American, 
Smithsonian. 

" I 'd rather range with Edward there, 
Than reign an English queen." 

6. The first word of a quotation, regularly introduced ; as, 

*'The last words of Lawrence were, ' Don't give up the ship.' " 
*' He replied, * I have not come to destroy.' " 

When the quotation is brought in after a comma, the capital is not 
used ; as, 

** Solomon says, that ' a wise son maketh a glad father.' " 

7. Every noun and principal word in the title of a book ; as. The Ame- 
rican Constitutions; Webster's Dictionary of the English Language. 

8. The first word of every line of poetry ; as, 

** Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; 
Thus unlamented, let me die, 
Steal from the world, and not a stone 
Tell where I lie." 

9. The pronoun I, and the interjection O. Some other words, remark- 
ably emphatic, or the principal subject of the composition, may begin 
with capitals. 



THE END, 






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